Human development

🔑 KEY TERMS & CONCEPTS

1. Disability, Neurodiversity, and Social Perception

• Impairment: A loss or abnormality of physiological, psychological, or anatomical structure or function.

• Disability: A restriction in the ability to perform a normal activity due to an impairment.

• Handicap: A disadvantage resulting from an impairment/disability that limits fulfillment of a role.

• Ableism: Discrimination or prejudice against individuals with disabilities.

• Neurodiversity: Recognizes neurological differences as natural variations (e.g., ADHD, autism).

• Infantilization: Treating adults with disabilities as if they are children.

• Social Model of Disability: Proposes that societal barriers, not impairments themselves, disable people.

2. Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory

• Microsystem: Immediate surroundings (family, school).

• Mesosystem: Interactions between microsystems (e.g., parent-teacher).

• Exosystem: External environments that indirectly influence the individual (e.g., parent’s workplace).

• Macrosystem: Cultural values, laws, customs.

• Chronosystem: Dimension of time—changes over life course and historical period.

PPCT Model (Person-Process-Context-Time)

• Person: Characteristics like age, sex, temperament, beliefs.

• Process: Daily interactions that drive development.

• Context: The ecological systems.

• Time: Includes both developmental (age/stage) and historical context.

3. Development & Identity in Context

• Social Construction: Development is shaped by societal norms, not just biology.

• Roles: Expectations associated with particular statuses.

• Stereotyping: Oversimplified beliefs about groups; reinforced by media and socialization.

• Labeling Theory (Becker): Labels affect identity formation and can reinforce deviant behavior.

• Role Engulfment: When one aspect of identity overtakes all others.

4. Cognitive and Social Biases

• Confirmation Bias: Tendency to seek info that confirms beliefs.

• Fundamental Attribution Error: Overemphasizing personal traits over situational causes.

• Contrast Effect: Perceptions influenced by comparison.

• Framing Effect: Decisions affected by how info is presented.

• Paradox of Choice: Too many options can lead to decision fatigue.

🧠 Memory, Aging, and Death

5. Memory and Aging

• Memory recall in older adults: Most common issue = retrieval failure (not loss of info).

• Aging Paradox: Older adults often have higher well-being despite decline.

• Compression of Morbidity: Effort to shorten the duration of illness near end of life.

• Subjective Age: How old one feels vs. actual age.

6. Death, Dying, and Bereavement

• Death as Cultural & Social: Rituals, definitions, and experiences vary globally.

• Denial of Death (Philippe Ariès): Modern society hides death, making it taboo.

• COVID Impact: Made death more visible and disrupted mourning rituals.

• Death Awareness Movement: Hospice, palliative care, emphasis on meaning-making.

Death Anxiety

• Freud: Thanatos = death instinct.

• Becker: Fear of death drives human behavior.

• Religion: Strong beliefs lower anxiety; ambivalent beliefs may increase it.

Types of Death

• Predictable: Chronic illness, aging.

• Unpredictable: Suicide, violence, accidents.

7. Grief Models

• Kübler-Ross Stages:

  1. Denial

  2. Anger

  3. Bargaining

  4. Depression

  5. Acceptance
     (Note: Not always linear.)

• Dual Process Model (Stroebe & Schut):

  • Loss-Oriented: Grief, sadness.

  • Restoration-Oriented: Adapting, new roles.

  • Oscillation: Moving between the two is healthiest.

• Narrative Model of Grief: Finding meaning through storytelling and rituals.

• Disenfranchised Grief: Loss not socially recognized (e.g., miscarriage, loss of ex-partner).

8. Attachment Styles & Grief

• Secure: Healthy grieving, continuity.

• Avoidant: Suppressed grief, delayed processing.

• Ambivalent: Prolonged, intense grief.

🧪 Famous Experiments

Milgram’s Obedience Study

• Tested obedience to authority.

• Many participants administered (fake) shocks despite personal discomfort.

Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment

• Demonstrated how roles and environment influence behavior.

• Role engulfment and deindividuation emerged.

🧩 Exam Strategy Reminders

• Know how language shapes perception of disability and development.

• Be ready to apply Bronfenbrenner’s theory to real-world scenarios.

• Understand how cultural practices shape views on death and grief.

• Use theory-based examples (e.g., PPCT, Kübler-Ross, Dual Process) to explain individual behaviors.

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🧠 Mock Exam: PSYC 2103 - Exam 3 Review

⬛ Section 1: Multiple Choice (25 Questions)

1. Which of the following best describes impairment?
A. A disadvantage due to societal norms
B. Loss of physical or mental function
C. Stereotype based on ability
D. Disadvantage in workplace settings

2. The Social Model of Disability emphasizes:
A. Genetic causes of disability
B. Personal failure to overcome disability
C. Social barriers as the cause of disability
D. The unchangeable nature of impairments

3. Bronfenbrenner’s Exosystem includes:
A. A child’s home
B. Parental workplace policies
C. Cultural beliefs
D. The child’s personal temperament

4. What are the four elements of Bronfenbrenner’s PPCT model?
A. Process, People, Conflict, Time
B. Person, Place, Community, Time
C. Person, Process, Context, Time
D. Place, Process, Culture, Timeline

5. Which is a demand characteristic in Bronfenbrenner’s model?
A. Motivation
B. Temperament
C. Race
D. Beliefs

6. The Framing Effect refers to how:
A. People rely on stereotypes
B. Memory fades over time
C. Presentation of information influences decisions
D. Labels shape identity

7. Which cognitive bias leads people to overestimate personality factors in explaining others’ actions?
A. Confirmation bias
B. Framing effect
C. Fundamental attribution error
D. Contrast effect

8. Which of the following is true about the Paradox of Choice?
A. More options lead to more satisfaction
B. Too many choices can result in anxiety and decision fatigue
C. Fewer options increase confusion
D. Choice has no effect on decision-making

9. What concept does Labeling Theory suggest?
A. Labels have no long-term impact
B. Labels can influence deviant identity formation
C. Labels affect genetics
D. Labels are created through instinct

10. What is role engulfment?
A. The merging of two personality traits
B. A single identity overshadowing all others
C. The acceptance of a cultural stereotype
D. A rejection of social roles

11. The Kübler-Ross model includes all of the following stages except:
A. Denial
B. Acceptance
C. Regression
D. Bargaining

12. Which theorist is associated with the Denial of Death concept?
A. Erikson
B. Philippe Ariès
C. Kubler-Ross
D. Freud

13. What shift occurred in modern dying, as noted in the slides?
A. From chronic to acute illness
B. From home deaths to institutional deaths
C. From physicians to shamans
D. From public to communal rituals

14. In the Dual Process Model of Grief, what does "oscillation" refer to?
A. Switching religions after loss
B. Moving between loss-oriented and restoration-oriented coping
C. Avoiding grief altogether
D. Holding onto denial

15. Disenfranchised grief refers to:
A. The grief of a monarch
B. Grief that is not socially acknowledged
C. Institutionalized mourning
D. Grief resolved within a week

16. According to Freud, Thanatos is:
A. The drive toward connection
B. The death instinct
C. A denial mechanism
D. A type of anxiety

17. Milgram’s experiment focused on:
A. Grief reaction
B. Conformity
C. Obedience to authority
D. Memory loss

18. Zimbardo’s prison experiment demonstrated:
A. The power of love
B. The effect of childhood trauma
C. The impact of social roles on behavior
D. Identity stability

19. Which is an example of an exosystem effect on a child?
A. Parent losing a job
B. Child making friends
C. School sports
D. Neighborhood culture

20. Which religious outlook is linked to lower death anxiety?
A. No beliefs
B. Strong afterlife belief
C. Atheism
D. Agnosticism

21. Which term refers to how one "feels" about their age?
A. Psychological age
B. Chronological age
C. Subjective age
D. Cultural age

22. What best describes Infantilization?
A. Treating elders as equals
B. Viewing neurodivergence as giftedness
C. Treating adults as if they were children
D. Encouraging independence

23. Vertical stressors typically include:
A. Friends
B. Past family traumas
C. Media influences
D. School transitions

24. Narrative grief models focus on:
A. Problem-solving
B. Medication
C. Telling and retelling the story of loss
D. Avoidance strategies

25. Which psychologist believed religion was an “infantile illusion”?
A. Freud
B. Jung
C. Erikson
D. Zimbardo

⬛ Section 2: Short Answer / Definitions (15 Questions)

26. Define neurodiversity and explain how it differs from a traditional medical model of disability.

27. List and define the five levels of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Systems Theory.

28. Describe the Compression of Morbidity hypothesis and its significance.

29. What is disenfranchised grief and provide an example.

30. Explain the difference between impairment, disability, and handicap.

31. What does the Dual Process Model of Grief suggest is the healthiest way to cope with loss?

32. How can social roles influence individual behavior? Use the Zimbardo study as an example.

33. Give an example of confirmation bias in everyday life.

34. Describe what is meant by the term horizontal stressors and give two examples.

35. What is the role of cultural beliefs in how death is understood and experienced?

36. Explain role engulfment and its impact on identity.

37. What does the Framing Effect tell us about decision-making?

38. Describe one key takeaway from the National Geographic Scratch and Sniff Study.

39. How do strong religious beliefs impact fear of death, according to research?

40. Define subjective age and explain its relevance to aging research.

⬛ Section 3: Application / Scenario-Based (10 Questions)

41. A child whose mother recently lost her job is starting to struggle in school. Which level of Bronfenbrenner's model best explains this change?

42. Your friend says they “feel 30” even though they just turned 50. What term applies here?

43. After being labeled a “troublemaker,” a student begins to skip class and cause disruption. What theory explains this identity shift?

44. During a pandemic, death becomes highly visible and public discussion increases. Which societal theory or trend does this align with?

45. A person coping with grief goes back to work but occasionally breaks down crying when reminded of their loss. Which grief model best fits this behavior?

46. A society that emphasizes keeping elderly individuals at home during their final days differs from one that relies on hospitals. What concept is at play here?

47. A parent receives a cancer diagnosis and begins organizing financial affairs and saying goodbye to friends. What role is this?

48. A teacher assumes a student with ADHD is lazy. Which type of bias might be influencing this assumption?

49. An individual with ambivalent attachment experiences intense and prolonged grief after their spouse’s death. What does this suggest about attachment and loss?

50. Your classmate has difficulty recalling recent names or facts, but remembers stories from childhood clearly. What age-related memory change is this?