Developmental psychology: Focuses on changes and development across the lifespan, including social, cognitive, and emotional changes.
Cross-Sectional Method:
Involves studying different age groups at a single time point (e.g., comparing 20, 40, and 60-year-olds).
Measures variables like working memory across ages.
Limitations: Cannot establish cause and effect; susceptible to cohort effects (differences might not be due to age).
Longitudinal Method:
Involves measuring the same group of participants across multiple time points.
Helps track changes over time and reduces cohort effects.
Development is a complex interaction between genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) influences.
Example: Some reflexes, like the riding reflex, can be impacted by the environment during early life.
1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years):
Infants learn to coordinate sensory experiences with motor actions (e.g., reaching for objects).
Object permanence develops (understanding that objects exist even when out of sight).
2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years):
More logical thought begins to emerge but still has limitations (e.g., egocentrism and centration).
Example: Children may not understand that the amount of liquid is the same when poured into different-shaped containers.
3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years):
Logical reasoning improves; children can perform operations mentally.
Children learn conservation; they understand that changing the shape of an object does not change its amount.
Ability to mentally reverse actions is emphasized.
4. Formal Operational Stage (11 to 15 years):
Abstract thinking and problem-solving capabilities are developed.
Adolescents can think about hypothetical situations and future possibilities.
Development may not be strictly stage-like; it's often continuous.
Underestimates the capabilities of younger children (e.g., object permanence may develop earlier than Piaget asserted).
Overestimates the cognitive abilities of adolescents and adults.
Cognitive development occurs within a social and cultural context, emphasizing the role of social interactions.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Distinguishes between what a child can do independently versus with assistance from more knowledgeable individuals.
Scaffolding: Support provided by caregivers to help children learn, which is gradually withdrawn as they become more independent.
Temperament:
Refers to basic emotional style evident in infancy, largely influenced by genetics.
Types of temperament identified by Thomas and chess:
Easy: Relaxed, adaptable, positive mood.
Difficult: Fussy, easily frustrated.
Slow to Warm Up: Cautious, withdraws but gradually adjusts.
Attachment:
Emotional bond between infant and caregiver, critical for social and emotional development.
Harlow's Experiment: Demonstrated that contact comfort is more important than nourishment for forming attachments in monkeys.
Ainsworth's Strange Situation: Classified attachment styles based on infant behavior when separated from and reunited with their caregiver:
Secure Attachment: Using caregiver as a secure base.
Insecure Attachment: Includes avoidant (indifferent) and anxious (distressed but not comforted) types.
Proposes eight stages that explore challenges across the lifespan:
Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1.5 years) - Developing trust when caregivers meet needs.
Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1.5 to 3 years) - Developing independence and control.
Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years) - Taking initiative in activities and decision making.
Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years to puberty) - Developing competence in academic and social skills.
Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Ages 10-20) - Exploring and establishing personal identity.
Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood) - Forming meaningful relationships.
Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood) - Contributing to society and the welfare of future generations.
Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood) - Reflecting on life and achieving a sense of fulfillment or regret.
Cognitive Performance: Peaks in early adulthood and generally declines with age, particularly in processing speed.
Accumulated wisdom and knowledge may increase with age, despite slower processing speeds.
Factors such as exercise, engagement in activities, and social connections can help mitigate cognitive decline in older adults.