New Recording 55

Overview of Developmental Psychology

• Developmental psychology: Focuses on changes and development across the lifespan, including social, cognitive, and emotional changes.

Methods of Studying Development

• Cross-Sectional Method:

  • Involves studying different age groups at a single time point (e.g., comparing 20, 40, and 60-year-olds).

  • Measures variables like working memory across ages.

  • Limitations: Cannot establish cause and effect; susceptible to cohort effects (differences might not be due to age).

• Longitudinal Method:

  • Involves measuring the same group of participants across multiple time points.

  • Helps track changes over time and reduces cohort effects.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Development is a complex interaction between genetic (nature) and environmental (nurture) influences.

• Example: Some reflexes, like the riding reflex, can be impacted by the environment during early life.

Piaget's Stages of Cognitive Development

• 1. Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 years):

  • Infants learn to coordinate sensory experiences with motor actions (e.g., reaching for objects).

  • Object permanence develops (understanding that objects exist even when out of sight).

• 2. Preoperational Stage (2 to 7 years):

  • More logical thought begins to emerge but still has limitations (e.g., egocentrism and centration).

  • Example: Children may not understand that the amount of liquid is the same when poured into different-shaped containers.

• 3. Concrete Operational Stage (7 to 11 years):

  • Logical reasoning improves; children can perform operations mentally.

  • Children learn conservation; they understand that changing the shape of an object does not change its amount.

  • Ability to mentally reverse actions is emphasized.

• 4. Formal Operational Stage (11 to 15 years):

  • Abstract thinking and problem-solving capabilities are developed.

  • Adolescents can think about hypothetical situations and future possibilities.

Critiques of Piaget's Theory

• Development may not be strictly stage-like; it's often continuous.

• Underestimates the capabilities of younger children (e.g., object permanence may develop earlier than Piaget asserted).

• Overestimates the cognitive abilities of adolescents and adults.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Cognitive Theory

• Cognitive development occurs within a social and cultural context, emphasizing the role of social interactions.

• Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD): Distinguishes between what a child can do independently versus with assistance from more knowledgeable individuals.

• Scaffolding: Support provided by caregivers to help children learn, which is gradually withdrawn as they become more independent.

Socioemotional Development

• Temperament:

  • Refers to basic emotional style evident in infancy, largely influenced by genetics.

  • Types of temperament identified by Thomas and chess:

    • Easy: Relaxed, adaptable, positive mood.

    • Difficult: Fussy, easily frustrated.

    • Slow to Warm Up: Cautious, withdraws but gradually adjusts.

• Attachment:

  • Emotional bond between infant and caregiver, critical for social and emotional development.

  • Harlow's Experiment: Demonstrated that contact comfort is more important than nourishment for forming attachments in monkeys.

  • Ainsworth's Strange Situation: Classified attachment styles based on infant behavior when separated from and reunited with their caregiver:

    • Secure Attachment: Using caregiver as a secure base.

    • Insecure Attachment: Includes avoidant (indifferent) and anxious (distressed but not comforted) types.

Erikson's Stages of Socioemotional Development

• Proposes eight stages that explore challenges across the lifespan:

  1. Trust vs. Mistrust (Birth to 1.5 years) - Developing trust when caregivers meet needs.

  2. Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (1.5 to 3 years) - Developing independence and control.

  3. Initiative vs. Guilt (3 to 5 years) - Taking initiative in activities and decision making.

  4. Industry vs. Inferiority (6 years to puberty) - Developing competence in academic and social skills.

  5. Identity vs. Identity Confusion (Ages 10-20) - Exploring and establishing personal identity.

  6. Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adulthood) - Forming meaningful relationships.

  7. Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle adulthood) - Contributing to society and the welfare of future generations.

  8. Integrity vs. Despair (Late adulthood) - Reflecting on life and achieving a sense of fulfillment or regret.

Cognitive Development in Adulthood

• Cognitive Performance: Peaks in early adulthood and generally declines with age, particularly in processing speed.

• Accumulated wisdom and knowledge may increase with age, despite slower processing speeds.

• Factors such as exercise, engagement in activities, and social connections can help mitigate cognitive decline in older adults.