Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

1. Differentiate between anatomy and physiology

• Anatomy: Study of the _______________________________ of the body and its parts, as well as their relationships to one another.

  • _________________________________: Visible structures studied without a microscope (e.g., organs in the torso model).

  • _________________________________: Structures too small to be seen with the naked eye (e.g., cells, tissues viewed on slides).

• Physiology: Study of the __________________________________________________________________ and how they work together to sustain life.

Imaging Techniques:

• _________________________________ Use electromagnetic radiation to view dense structures like bones (appear white).

• __________________________________________________________________: Produces cross-sectional images for detecting tumors or abnormalities.

• __________________________________________________________________): Uses magnetic fields to view soft tissues, brain, or ligaments.

• __________________________________________________________________): Shows metabolic activity; often used in cancer diagnosis.

• _________________________________: Uses sound waves for soft tissues like the heart or during pregnancy.

2. Levels of Organization

From simplest to most complex:

1. _________________________________: Basic chemical units (e.g., carbon, oxygen).

2. _________________________________: Combination of atoms (e.g., DNA, water).

3. _________________________________: Functional units within a cell (e.g., mitochondria).

4. _________________________________: Basic unit of life (e.g., muscle cells).

5. _________________________________: Group of cells working together (e.g., epithelial tissue).

6. _________________________________: Composed of two or more tissue types (e.g., heart, lungs).

7. _________________________________: Group of organs working together (e.g., cardiovascular system).

8. _________________________________: Complete living being.

3. Visible Organs and Organ Systems

• Visible Organs (human torso model):

  • _________________________________: Nervous system; processes sensory input.

  • _________________________________: Cardiovascular system; pumps blood.

  • _________________________________: Digestive system; detoxifies blood, produces bile.

  • _________________________________: Respiratory system; oxygenates blood.

  • _________________________________: Digestive system; breaks down food.

  • _________________________________: Urinary system; filters blood.

  • _________________________________: Lymphatic system; removes old red blood cells.

  • __________________________________________________________________ Endocrine system; produces hormones.

Functions of Organ Systems:

1. Integumentary: __________________________________________________________________.

2. Skeletal: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________.

3. Muscular: __________________________________________________________________

4. Nervous:__________________________________________________________________

5. Endocrine: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

6. Cardiovascular: ____________________________________________________________________________

7. Lymphatic/Immune: ____________________________________________________________________________

8. Respiratory: __________________________________________________________________.

9. Digestive: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

10. Urinary: __________________________________________________________________

11. Reproductive: __________________________________________________________________

4. Anatomical Terms and Body Cavities

Anatomical Position:

• Body upright, arms at sides, palms forward. Always refer to the patient's right and left.

Planes:

• _________________________________: Divides body into left and right.

• __________________________________________________________________: Divides body into top and bottom.

• __________________________________________________________________ Divides body into front and back.

Body Cavities:

• Dorsal:

  • _________________________________: Brain.

  • _________________________________: Spinal cord.

• Ventral:

  • _________________________________: Heart (pericardial cavity), lungs (pleural cavities).

  • Abdominopelvic:

    • _________________________________: Liver, stomach, intestines.

    • _________________________________: Bladder, reproductive organs.

Serous Membranes:

• _________________________________: Covers organs.

• _________________________________: Lines cavity walls.

• Examples:

  • _________________________________: Abdominal cavity.

  • _________________________________: Lungs.

  • _________________________________: Heart.

5. Vertebrate Structures

Humans share basic structures with all vertebrates:

• Spinal column

• Bilateral symmetry

• Tube-like digestive system

• Segmented body plan

Chapter 2: Cells: The Living Units

1. Cell Structure and Function

• __________________________________________________________________: Regulates what enters/leaves the cell.

• _________________________________: Controls genetic information.

• _________________________________: ATP production.

• _________________________________: Protein synthesis.

• ___________________________________________________________________________: Synthesizes proteins (rough) and lipids (smooth).

• __________________________________________________________________: Packages and processes proteins.

• _________________________________: Digest cellular waste.

• _________________________________: Provides shape and support.

Cell Types:

• _________________________________cells: Contract for movement.

• _________________________________cells: Line surfaces.

• _________________________________cells: Transmit signals.

2. Cellular Processes

• _________________________________: Programmed cell death (normal).

• _________________________________: Accidental cell death (injury).

Mitosis vs. Meiosis:

• _________________________________: Produces 2 identical daughter cells (somatic cells).

• _________________________________: Produces 4 non-identical gametes (sex cells).

3. Tissue Repair and Terms

• _________________________________: Decrease in size.

• _________________________________: Increase in size.

• _________________________________: Increase in cell number.

• _________________________________: Change in cell type.

• _________________________________: Abnormal growth (tumors).

• _________________________________: Disorganized growth (often precancerous).

Chapter 3: Embryology

• Germ Layers:

  • _________________________________: Becomes skin, brain, nerves.

  • _________________________________: Becomes muscles, bones, blood.

  • _________________________________: Becomes digestive and respiratory linings.

Chapter 4: Tissues

1. Epithelial Tissue

• Simple Squamous: __________________________________________________________________

• Stratified Squamous: _________________________________

• Simple Cuboidal: _________________________________.

• Simple Columnar: _________________________________.

• Pseudostratified: __________________________________________________________________

• Transitional: _________________________________.

2. Connective Tissue

• Dense Regular: _________________________________.

• Areolar: _________________________________

• Adipose:_________________________________

• Hyaline Cartilage:_________________________________

• Elastic Cartilage: _________________________________.

• Bone: __________________________________________________________________

• Blood: __________________________________________________________________.

3. Muscle Tissue

• _________________________________: Voluntary, striated.

• _________________________________: Involuntary, striated, intercalated discs.

• _________________________________: Involuntary, non-striated.

4. Nervous Tissue

• _________________________________: Transmit signals.

• _________________________________: Support neurons.

Comprehensive Anatomy and Physiology Study Guide

Skeletal System

Key Concepts

1. Differentiate Between:

   • Cartilage and Bone:

     • Cartilage: _________________________________connective tissue with no blood vessels or nerves; found in_________________________________________________________ Types:______________________________________________________

     • Bone: _________________________________connective tissue with a vascular supply; provides ____________________________________________________________

   • Spongy (Cancellous) vs. Compact Bone:

     • Spongy Bone: Composed of _________________________________, houses_________________________________, and found in the _________________________________of long bones.

     • Compact Bone: Dense and organized into _________________________________, providing strength for_________________________________

   • Three Types of Cartilage:

     • _________________________________: Found in joints, nose, trachea; reduces friction and absorbs shock.

     • _________________________________: Found in the ear and epiglottis; provides flexibility.

     • _________________________________: Found in intervertebral discs; resists compression.

   • Interstitial and Appositional Growth:

     • Interstitial Growth: Growth from _________________________________, increasing length.

     • Appositional Growth: Growth on the ___________________________________________________________, increasing thickness.

   • Cell Types:

     • _________________________________: Cartilage-forming cells.

     • _________________________________: Mature cartilage cells located in lacunae.

     • ___________________________________________________________: Stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts.

     • _________________________________: Bone-forming cells that secrete the matrix.

     • _________________________________: Mature bone cells maintaining bone tissue.

     • _________________________________: Bone-resorbing cells.

2. Functions:

   • Skeletal System: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

   • Cartilage: ____________________________________________________________________

   • Bone:_______________________________________________________________

   • Bone Cells: __________________________________________________________________

3. Histology:

   • Identify the following structures in compact and spongy bone:

     • Chondrocytes, Osteocytes

     • Haversian System/Osteon

     • Lamellae, Lacunae

     • Central Canal, Canaliculi

4. Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone:

   • Label and describe the functions of:

     • _________________________________: Outer covering for nourishment and repair.

     • ___________________________________________________________: Smooth joint surfaces.

     • _________________________________: Lines the medullary cavity.

     • ___________________________________________________________: Ends and shaft of long bones.

     • ___________________________________________________________: Growth region in children; ossified in adults.

     • ___________________________________________________________: Houses marrow.

     • ___________________________________________________________: Produces blood cells.

     • ___________________________________________________________: Stores fat.

     • ___________________________________________________________: Provides strength and support.

5. Bone Matrix Composition:

   • Organic components:_________________________________ for flexibility.

   • Inorganic components: _________________________________for hardness.

6. Epiphyseal Plate Growth Activity:

   • Identify layers:

     • _________________________________Zone: Inactive cartilage.

     • _________________________________Zone: Rapid chondrocyte division.

     • _________________________________Zone: Enlargement of chondrocytes.

     • _________________________________Zone: Chondrocytes die; cartilage calcifies.

     • _________________________________Zone: Bone formation.

7. Bone Markings:

   • Projections:_________________________________________________________

   • Depressions: ____________________________________________________________________

8. Ossification Processes:

   • __________________________________________________________________: Bone develops from cartilage.

     • Steps: Cartilage model → Calcification → Primary ossification center forms → Medullary cavity develops → Secondary ossification centers form → Growth plates ossify.

   • __________________________________________________________________: Bone forms directly from mesenchyme.

     • Steps: Mesenchymal cells → Osteoblasts form matrix → Spongy bone develops → Compact bone forms.

Axial and Appendicular Skeleton

Key Concepts

1. Identify Bones and Surface Markings:

   • _________________________________Skeleton: Skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage.

   • _________________________________Skeleton: Upper and lower limbs, shoulder and pelvic girdles.

   • _________________________________Skull: Fontanelles and sutures.

2. Differentiate Between:

   • Axial vs. Appendicular Skeleton.

   • Cervical, Thoracic, and Lumbar Vertebrae.

   • Atlas (C1) vs. Axis (C2).

   • True Ribs (1-7) vs. False Ribs (8-12).

3. Identify Right vs. Left Bones:

   • Upper and lower limbs (except clavicle and fibula).

4. Male vs. Female Pelvis:

   • Female pelvis: __________________________________________________________________

   • Male pelvis: __________________________________________________________________

Integumentary System

Key Concepts

1. Skin Layers and Structures:

   • Epidermis: Strata from deep to superficial:

     • ____________________________________________________________

     • ____________________________________________________________

     • ____________________________________________________________

     • ____________________________________________________________

     • ____________________________________________________________

   • Dermis:

     • ___________________________________________________________: Dermal papillae, Meissner’s corpuscles.

     • ___________________________________________________________: Dense connective tissue, Pacinian corpuscles.

   • __________________________________________________: Adipose tissue for insulation and cushioning.

2. Accessory Structures:

   • Hair: ____________________________________________________________________

   • Nails: ____________________________________________________________________

   • Glands:

     • _________________________Glands: Produce sebum.

     • _________________________(Sweat) Glands:

       • _________________________: Thermoregulation.

       • _________________________: Found in armpits, secrete into hair follicles.

3. Skin Color Variation:

   • Influenced by __________________________________________________

   • Evolutionary hypotheses: ___________________________________________________________________.

4. Functions of Skin:

   • ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

5. Thick vs. Thin Skin:

   • Thick Skin: Found on __________________________________________________; has a stratum lucidum.

   • Thin Skin: ___________________________________________________________________; lacks stratum lucidum.

6. Clinical Applications:

   • Skin’s response to injuries, burns, or diseases (e.g., melanoma, psoriasis).