AP Comparative Government & Politics - Nigeria

Nigeria: An Overview

Geography and Demographics

  • Nigeria is located in West Africa along the Atlantic coast, making it accessible to European powers during the Scramble for Africa (1860–1910).
  • The country is a federal state with thirty-six states and a Federal Capital Territory in Abuja.
  • Nigeria is deeply divided:
    • Linguistically.
    • Ethnically: Over 250 distinct ethnicities.
    • Religiously: Muslim-Christian divide with indigenous religions.

Regional Divisions

  • Northwest: Populated by the Hausa-Fulani, predominantly Islamic, making up just over 30% of Nigeria’s population after the Fulani Jihad of 1804-1808.
  • Northeast: Predominantly Islamic but with smaller ethnic groups like the Kanuri (about 6% of the population).
  • Middle Belt: Ethnically and religiously mixed, with solidarity among diverse groups and its own political identity.
  • Southwest: Dominated by the Yoruba people (about 21% of Nigeria’s population) with a mix of Christianity (55%), Islam (35%), and indigenous Yoruba religion (10%).
  • Southern Delta: The Niger Delta has numerous small groups and the highest concentration of oil deposits, leading to conflicts over resource rights.
  • Southeast: Dominated by the Igbo (about 18% of Nigeria’s population), most densely populated and predominantly Christian (Roman Catholic).

Historical Context

Independence and the First Republic

  • Achieved independence from Britain in 1960.
  • The military has historically been the only truly national institutional force uniting the country.
  • In 1963, Nigeria became a federal republic with three regions, each dominated by a major tribe.
  • Government structure mimicked the British parliamentary system.
  • Political parties mirrored ethnic politics.
  • Northern region's early dominance caused resentment in the East and West regions.

Military Coups and Republics

  • 1966: Southern generals organized a coup, assassinating the prime minister and northern officials, ending the First Republic.
  • Northern military forces staged a counter-coup, installing a new northern Supreme Commander.
  • Biafran Civil War (1967–1970):
    • The Igbo state, Biafra, seceded in 1967 to control oil royalties.
    • The British government supported the Nigerian military, which launched an offensive to retake the territory.
    • More than two million people died, many Igbo characterized it as genocide.
  • Second Republic: Mirrored the American system with federalism and presidential government.
    • Political parties needed to register in at least two-thirds of Nigeria’s nineteen states.
    • Each state guaranteed a cabinet representative.
  • 1983: General Muhammadu Buhari overthrew the government, citing corruption.
  • Ibrahim Babangida overthrew Buhari, imposing economic reforms.
    • Austerity programs: Increased taxes, reduced government spending
    • Market pricing for businesses
    • Devalued Nigerian currency
    • Worked with the IMF for structural adjustment of public debt.
  • Third Republic: Babangida created only two political parties, annulled elections, and stepped down due to protests.
  • Sani Abacha's Regime: Radical economic development, ended privatization, increased foreign cash reserves, and reduced debt.
    • Jailed the elected government and executed civil society activists like Ken Saro-Wiwa.
    • Abacha died in 1998.

The Fourth Republic (1999–Present)

  • General Abubakar called for a new democratic republic, reviving the Second Republic's structure.
  • 1999 Election: Olusegun Obasanjo won the presidency as a civilian.
  • The People’s Democratic Party (PDP) balanced regional and religious interests.
  • Obasanjo reelected in 2003.
  • 2007: Umaru Yar’Adua became president in the first civilian-to-civilian transfer of power, though the election was controversial.
  • 2010: Goodluck Jonathan became president after Yar’Adua's death.
  • 2015: Muhammadu Buhari (APC) won the election, marking the first democratic transition of power.

Political Culture and Institutions

Political Culture

  • Patron-Clientelism: Prebendalism, where tribal loyalty supersedes obligations to the state, with massive economic benefits for political offices.
  • Nigeria ranks low on Transparency International’s Corruption Perceptions Index.

Social Cleavages

  • Ethnicity: More than 250 ethnic groups with three dominant tribes (Hausa-Fulani, Igbo, and Yoruba).
  • Religion: North-South divide between Muslims and Christians, with Shari’ah law implemented in northern states.
  • Region: North (rural agrarian economy) vs. South (urbanized, benefits from oil and British education).

Civil Society

  • The state struggles to control civil society groups, except through violent means.
  • Some groups build national identity, while others exacerbate ethnic and religious divides (e.g., Boko Haram).
  • Low participation rates in civil society organizations.

Political Institutions

  • Nigeria is in the early phases of democratic transition; Freedom House characterizes Nigeria as “partly free.”
  • Economist Intelligence Unit’s Democracy Index classifies it as a hybrid regime.

Interest Groups and The Media

Interest Groups

  • Labor Unions: Active since the early 1900s, pushing for ordinary Nigerians’ concerns.
  • Business Interests: Complicit in military rule, benefiting from privatization and structural adjustment.
  • Human Rights and Democracy Groups: Advocating for democratic reforms, civil liberties, and women’s rights.

The Media

  • Broad and diverse coverage, mainly in the south and cities.
  • Radio and word-of-mouth are common news sources.
  • Mobile technology and the Internet are revolutionizing media.
  • Willingness to criticize government policy, with investigative reporting and political cartoons.

Public Policy

Economic Policy and Oil

  • Oil accounts for 46% of Nigeria’s GDP, making it a rentier state dependent on foreign corporations.
  • The “resource curse”: concentration of economic control, corruption, and lack of development in other sectors.
  • The Movement to Emancipate the Niger Delta (MEND) fights for oil revenue benefits for local communities and reparations for environmental damage.
  • Government military campaigns against MEND.

Democratization

  • The Independent National Electoral Commission (INEC) oversees elections.
  • Criticism of INEC for benefiting the government until Attahiru Jega’s appointment in 2010.
  • Introduction of biometric national ID cards reduced fraud in elections.

Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS)

  • A union of fifteen West African countries aiming to create a free-trade zone and economic integration.
  • Goals include expanding transportation infrastructure, creating a common market, and harmonizing fiscal policies.
  • The West African Monetary Zone (WAMZ) aims to unify monetary policy and create a common currency (the eco), but implementation is delayed.

Government Structure

The President

  • Serves a four-year term and may be reelected once.
  • Acts as head of state and head of government.
  • Appoints nearly all public officials without legislative consent.
  • Powers include signing or vetoing bills, appointing officials, calling referendums, and issuing pardons.

The National Assembly

  • Bicameral legislature with the House of Representatives and the Senate.
  • Both houses must pass a bill for it to become law.
  • Can override the president’s veto with a two-thirds majority.
  • Senate confirms cabinet and top-level court nominations.

Regional Governments and Federalism

  • Nigeria is a federal system with thirty-six states and Abuja.
  • States have authority over local issues, with directly elected governors and legislatures.
  • Oil remains a point of contention, with states seeking a larger share of profits.
  • Federalism weakens national identity as state boundaries are drawn along ethnic and religious lines.

The Judiciary

  • Divided into state and federal systems with the Supreme Court as the final court of appeal.
  • Empowered with judicial review but rarely exercises it.
  • Courts face pressure from the executive and legislature, and suffer from corruption.
  • Shari’ah courts exist in twelve northern states, generating controversy.

The Bureaucracy

  • Established under the British colonial model.
  • Entrenched prebendalism (corruption and patron-client systems).
  • Parastatal agencies and companies are overseen by presidential appointees.

The Military

  • Highest-ranking officer acted as the Supreme Military Commander during military rule.
  • Today, the military offers economic prospects for young Nigerians.

Linkage Institutions

Political Parties

  • People’s Democratic Party (PDP): Formed in 1998, center-right economic policies, socially conservative.
  • All Progressives Congress (APC): Formed in 2013, a coalition of opposition parties, left-leaning economic platform, socially conservative.

Elections

  • President and vice president elected in a nationwide vote.
  • Legislative houses elected within each state.
  • Voter turnout has varied, with a notable dip in 2015 and 2019.

Presidential Election

  • Elected directly to a four-year term, up to two terms.
  • Requires at least 25% of the vote in at least two-thirds of the states to win.

House of Representatives Elections

  • 360 single-member-district (SMD) constituencies within states.
  • Representation based on population.

Senate Elections

  • Each of the thirty-six states elects three Senators, and Abuja elects one, for a total of 109 Senators.
  • First-past-the-post system.