Untitled Flashcards Set

Chapter 1: Introduction to Psychology 

• Psychology – The study of behavior and mental processes.

• Developmental Psychology – The Study of human growth and change from prenatal to old age.

• Physiological Psychology –  investigates the basis of behavior, thought, and emotions. How the brain and body affect behavior: Brain & Body → Focuses on the biological reasons behind behavior.

• Experimental Psychology –  Investigate basic psychological mental processes. Mental Processes → Focuses on how people think, learn, and remember through controlled experiments.

• Personality Psychology – The study of personality traits and how they develop.

• Clinical Psychology – A branch of psychology that assesses and treats mental illness and behavioral/ psychological disorders. Focus on diagnosis, causes and treatments.

• Counseling Psychology – Helps people cope with life challenges and improve their well-being.

• Social Psychology – The study of how individuals are influenced by thoughts, feelings, and behavior by society and other people.

• I/O Psychology (Industrial-Organizational Psychology) – The study of workplace behavior to improve productivity and job satisfaction.

Key Issues in Psychology:

• Person-Situation – The debate over whether behavior is determined more by personality or situational factors.

• Example: If someone is naturally kind, will they always help others, or does it depend on the situation (e.g., if they are in a hurry, will they ignore someone in need)?

Person = Personality traits (consistent behavior across situations).

Situation = Environment and circumstances (behavior changes based on context).

• Nature-Nurture – The ongoing debate over the influence of genetics (nature) vs. environment (nurture) on behavior.

        Example: Are we born intelligent, or does our upbringing and education shape our intelligence?

Nature = Genetics and biology (traits you’re born with).

Nurture = Environment and experiences (how you’re raised).

• Stability-Change – The debate over whether traits persist or change over time.

Example: If a child is shy, will they always be shy, or can life experiences make them more outgoing?

 Stability = Personality traits stay the same throughout life.
Change = Personality traits evolve due to experiences and development.

• Diversity-Universality – The extent to which psychological principles apply universally or are culture-specific.

Example: Basic emotions like happiness, sadness, and fear are expressed similarly across all cultures (universality). However, cultural differences shape how emotions are displayed—Western cultures may encourage openly expressing emotions, while some Eastern cultures promote emotional restraint (diversity).

Universality = Everyone behaves in similar ways, no matter where they're from.
Diversity = People behave differently depending on their culture or background.

Scientific Concepts:

• The Scientific Method – process for testing hypotheses and developing theories. ( a way to figure out answers to questions or solve problems) 

• Scientific Theory – A well-tested explanation for a broad range of observations.

 collecting data, generating a theory to explain the data, producing testable hypotheses (has been proven by research and evidence)

• Theory – A general principle that explains a set of facts or phenomena. (an idea or guess)

• Hypotheses – Testable predictions derived from a theory.

Historical Figures in Psychology:

• Critical Thinking – (THINKING LIKE A SCIENTIST) The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue to form a judgment.    involves carefully analyzing, evaluating, and synthesizing information

• Three Greek Philosophers Discussed 

• Thomas Hobbes-his ideas influenced areas like social psychology and behaviorism. He believed that human behavior is driven by self-interest and the desire to avoid pain, which later influenced theories about motivation and human nature.

• John Locke – Proposed the idea of the Tabula Rasa (blank slate), suggesting that humans are shaped by experience.

• Charles Darwin – Introduced the theory of evolution, which influenced evolutionary psychology.

Psychological Approaches:

• Structuralism – The study of the structure of the mind, associated with Edward Titchener. Stresses basic units of experience

• Functionalism – The study of how mental processes help individuals adapt, associated with William James. Focused on how individuals use their abilities to adapt and function in their environment

• Psychodynamic Psychology – Founded by Sigmund Freud. Contents behavior results from psychological factors that interact within the individual.

• Behaviorism – Founded by John Watson and expanded by B.F. Skinner (the concept of reinforcement), emphasizes observable behavior.

• Gestalt Psychology – Studies perception and how the mind organizes information as a whole. Studies how people perceive and experience objects as whole patterns

• Humanistic Psychology – Focuses on personal growth and self-fulfillment. Emphasizes nonverbal experience and altered states of consciousness as a means of realizing one’s full human potential, personal growth 

• Cognitive Psychology – The study of mental processes like thinking, memory, and language.

Culture and Psychology:

• Gender – The characteristics and behaviors that society associates with male and female roles.

• Gender Stereotypes – beliefs about “typical” male or female behaviors and roles, Culture – Shared beliefs, values, and traditions of a group.

• Individualistic Culture – Values independence and personal achievements (e.g., American culture).

• Collectivist Culture – Values  independence, fitting in, and a harmonious relationship

• Cross-Cultural Research – Studies differences and similarities between cultures.

Ethics in Psychology:

• APA Ethical Guidelines (Human Subjects) – Informed consent, no harm, confidentiality, and debriefing.

-Participants must be informed of the nature of the research in clearly understandable language

–Informed consent must be documented

–Risks, possible adverse effects, and limitations on confidentiality must be spelled out in advance

-If participation is a condition of course credit, equitable alternative activities must be offered

–Participants cannot be deceived about aspects of the research that would affect their willingness to participate

–Deception about the goals of the research can be used only when necessary to the integrity of the research

APA Ethical Guidelines for Human Subjects:

1. Informed Consent – Participants must be told about the study and agree to take part willingly.

2. Protection from Harm – Researchers must protect participants from physical or emotional harm.

3. Confidentiality – Personal information must be kept private.

4. Right to Withdraw – Participants can leave the study at any time without consequences.

5. Debriefing – After the study, researchers must explain the purpose and any deception used.

• APA Ethical Guidelines (Animal Subjects) – Humane treatment, minimizing pain, and necessity of research.

–Researchers must ensure “appropriate consideration on the animal’s comfort, health, and humane treatment”

–Animals may not be subjected to “pain, stress, or privation” when an alternative procedure is available

The APA Ethical Guidelines for Animal Subjects:

1. Justification of Research – Studies using animals must have a clear scientific purpose and benefit.

2. Qualified Researchers – Only trained professionals should handle and care for the animals.

3. Minimization of Pain and Distress – Pain or discomfort must be minimized as much as possible.

4. Use of Alternatives – If possible, researchers should use methods that do not involve animals.

Psychology Professions:

• Psychiatrist vs. Psychologist – 

• Psychiatrists are medical doctors (M.D.) who can prescribe medication; 

• psychologists (Ph.D. or Psy.D.) provide therapy and research behavior.