Developmental Psychology exam 3

A. Infancy

1. Brain Development: Proliferation and Synaptic Pruning

   • Proliferation refers to the rapid growth of neurons (nerve cells) and the formation of synapses (connections between neurons) during early brain development.

   • Synaptic Pruning is the process in which unused or less frequently used synaptic connections are eliminated, making brain networks more efficient. This process occurs significantly after birth, especially during the first few years of life.

2. Functioning of Newborn/Infant Senses: Most and Least Developed

   • Most Developed: Newborns have relatively well-developed senses of touch and taste. They can recognize the taste of their mother's milk and feel pain.

   • Least Developed: Vision is the least developed sense at birth. Newborns are nearsighted and can only see objects clearly that are about 8-12 inches away. Hearing is functional, but not fully refined.

3. Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage: Primary and Secondary Circular Reactions

   • Primary Circular Reactions: These are repetitive actions centered around the infant's own body. For example, a baby may suck their thumb or make repetitive hand movements.

   • Secondary Circular Reactions: These involve repeated actions that impact the external environment. For example, an infant may shake a rattle to hear the sound it makes.

   • Object Permanence: This is the understanding that objects continue to exist even when they cannot be seen, heard, or touched. It typically develops around 8-9 months.

   • A-not-B Error: A phenomenon where infants, before the age of 12 months, search for an object where it was last found (location A) rather than where it was hidden most recently (location B).

4. Sequence of Language Development in Infancy

   • Cooing (around 6-8 weeks): Infants make cooing sounds.

   • Babbling (around 4-6 months): Repetition of consonant-vowel combinations.

   • First words (around 12 months): Simple words like "mama" or "dada."

   • Two-word phrases (around 18-24 months): Combinations like "want cookie" or "big truck."

5. Infant Temperament Categories and Stability/Change Over Time

   • Temperament categories: Infants are typically classified into three categories:

     • Easy: Flexible, regular routines, positive mood.

     • Difficult: Intense reactions, irregular routines, negative mood.

     • Slow-to-warm-up: Inactive, less emotional intensity, initially shy but adjusts over time.

   • Stability/Change: Temperament can be relatively stable over time, but it can also be influenced by caregiving, environment, and maturation. Some children may shift from one temperament category to another as they grow.

6. Primary Emotions

   • These are the basic emotions that emerge in infancy and are biologically innate, such as joy, anger, fear, and sadness. They are universal across cultures and form the foundation for more complex emotional responses later in life.

7. Social Engagement (e.g., Social Referencing, Synchrony, and the Still-Face Experiment)

   • Social Referencing: Infants look to caregivers or others for emotional cues in uncertain situations (e.g., a baby looking at their mother’s facial expression when approaching a new object).

   • Synchrony: This refers to the mutual, rhythmical interaction between infants and caregivers (e.g., cooing back and forth).

   • Still-Face Experiment: A procedure in which a caregiver maintains a neutral face without responding to an infant. This often causes distress in the infant, highlighting the importance of social interaction for emotional regulation.

8. Outcomes for Orphan Infants in Romania

   • Infants raised in institutions with little social interaction, such as in Romania, showed significant developmental delays, attachment issues, and emotional problems. Early deprivation of social and emotional experiences can hinder cognitive, social, and emotional development.

9. Risk Factors for SIDS (Sudden Infant Death Syndrome)

   • Some risk factors for SIDS include:

     • Sleeping on the stomach: Babies who sleep on their stomachs are at higher risk.

     • Premature birth or low birth weight.

     • Exposure to secondhand smoke.

     • Soft bedding: Using soft pillows, blankets, or stuffed animals in the crib.

     • Overheating during sleep.

B. Toddlerhood

1. Piaget’s Sensorimotor Stage: Tertiary Circular Reactions

   • Tertiary Circular Reactions: These involve experimentation with new actions to see how they affect the world, demonstrating that toddlers are increasingly problem-solving and testing hypotheses. For example, a toddler may drop a toy from different heights to see what happens.

   • Criticisms of Piaget’s Theory: Critics argue that Piaget underestimated infants’ abilities, as some cognitive abilities (like object permanence) may develop earlier than Piaget suggested. Additionally, his theory is seen as too focused on stages, neglecting cultural influences and individual differences.

2. Language Development in Toddlerhood

   • Chomsky’s Language Acquisition Device (LAD): Chomsky proposed that humans are biologically predisposed to learn language. He suggested that children have an innate language-learning mechanism that helps them acquire language effortlessly.

   • Naming/Vocabulary Explosion: Around 18 months, many toddlers experience a significant increase in their vocabulary, learning new words at a rapid pace. This is often referred to as the "vocabulary explosion."

3. Self-Awareness and Recognition

   • Self-awareness: Around 18-24 months, toddlers begin to recognize themselves in mirrors or photographs, indicating the development of self-awareness.

   • This self-recognition is an early sign of developing a sense of identity and personal autonomy.

4. Secondary Emotions

   • Secondary emotions, such as shame, guilt, embarrassment, and pride, typically emerge in toddlerhood as children become more aware of social expectations and how their actions affect others.

5. Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory

   • In toddlerhood, Erikson’s second stage, Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt, is central. Toddlers begin to assert their independence (e.g., potty training, feeding themselves). Successful resolution of this stage leads to a sense of autonomy, while failure can result in feelings of shame and doubt.

6. Attachment Theory

   • Strange Situation Experimental Paradigm: A structured observational procedure developed by Mary Ainsworth to study attachment. The procedure involves a series of separations and reunions between the toddler and their caregiver to assess the child’s attachment behavior.

   • Attachment Categories:

     • Secure Attachment: Toddlers feel distressed when separated from their caregiver but are easily comforted upon reunion.

     • Insecure-Avoidant Attachment: Toddlers avoid or ignore their caregiver, showing little distress when separated.

     • Insecure-Ambivalent/Resistant Attachment: Toddlers are highly distressed when separated and show difficulty calming down upon reunion.

Disorganized Attachment: A pattern of inconsistent and erratic behavior toward the caregiver, often associated with trauma or neglect.