Chapter 4 - Rule Britannia! The English Empire, 1660–1763 — Study Notes (Sections 4.1–4.5)
4.1 Charles II and the Restoration Colonies
CONTEXT: The 18th century saw Great Britain’s rise as a commercial and military power and the expansion of its empire from India to the West Indies, alongside a rapidly growing population in North American colonies.
Anglo-American colonial identity: Colonists increasingly perceived themselves as part of the British Empire politically, religiously, intellectually, and racially.
PORTRAIT OF THE ROYALLS (Figure 4.1): Isaac Royall and family portrait (1741 copy of a Royall family painting) shows wealth and loyalty to Britain; the Royalls moved from Antigua to Medford, MA, bringing enslaved people with them; emblematic of colonial gentry’s status and slaveholding ties to the empire.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES for 4.1:
Analyze the causes and consequences of the Restoration.
Identify the Restoration colonies and their role in imperial expansion.
CHRONICLE OF CHARLES II (1660–1685): Restored English monarchy after the Interregnum (English Civil Wars and Commonwealth under Cromwell).
RESTORATION COLONIES established/expanded (1660s–1680s):
New York and New Jersey (taken from the Dutch) and expanded on the Atlantic coast to the Carolinas and Pennsylvania.
Enacted mercantilist Navigation Acts to maximize England’s economic control over colonial trade; enforcement remained lax, and many colonial merchants ignored them (a pattern known as salutary neglect).
CHARLES II: BACKGROUND
Father: Charles I ascended throne in 1625; married Henrietta Maria, a French Catholic princess; caused Protestant opposition in Parliament.
1629–1640: Charles I suspended Parliament and ruled without it for 11 years, precipitating civil conflict.
ENGLISH CIVIL WAR (1642–1649): Royalists vs. Parliamentarians; 1649 Charles I beheaded; monarchy dissolved; England became a republic (Commonwealth) under Oliver Cromwell.
Cromwell’s rule perceived as dictatorial by some; after Cromwell’s death, fear of hereditary monarchy grew; Restoration in 1660 with Charles II returning to the throne.
THE CAROLINAS (part of Restoration colonies):
1663 charter to eight proprietors to govern the Carolina region; proprietors did not relocate; Barbados planters migrated south to Carolina to plant sugar and other colonial crops.
1670 Charles Town (Charleston) founded at the junction of Ashley and Cooper Rivers; grew as a center for export of livestock to the West Indies.
Northern vs. Southern Carolina (1710s–1720s): political differences led to the split into North and South Carolina in 1729.
Southern Carolina: rice and indigo; continued to rely on enslaved labor; slavery became central to the economy.
Northern Carolina: tar and pitch for ships; population growth tied to Virginia tobacco interests.
SLAVERY IN CAROLINAS: By the end of the 1600s, a wealthy planter class dependent on enslaved labor dominated southern Carolina; by 1715, South Carolina had a Black majority due to enslaved labor.
BARBADOS SLAVE CODES influence: Early Carolina slave laws based on Barbados codes; Africans reduced to property status for sale and ownership, underpinning legal framework of slavery.
NATIVE PEOPLES AND COLONIZATION IN THE CAROLINAS:
Native populations suffered catastrophic declines due to disease and displacement; Yamasee War (1715–1718) demonstrated Native resistance and the disunity among tribes.
Causes of Yamasee War included expansion onto Native lands, encroachment on resources, and debt payments with captured Native women; eventual Cherokee alliance helped English survive.
NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY:
English takeover of New Netherland occurred during Anglo-Dutch wars; 1664 charter granted to James, Duke of York; renamed New York.
Dutch recaptured in 1673 (Third Anglo-Dutch War), but English regained control; 1683 Charter of Liberties and Privileges established rights of Englishmen and representative government.
Livingstons and other manorial families gained large estates (largest: 160,000 acres to Robert Livingston in 1686) and continued Dutch-English influence in landholding patterns.
NYC in the 18th century: diverse population (Dutch, English, Huguenots, Jews, Quakers, Anglicans) with enslaved labor; Iroquois neutrality allowed continued trade with both English and French.
PENNSYLVANIA:
1681: William Penn granted Pennsylvania, the largest proprietary colony, to settle Penn family debts.
PENN AS A QUAKER: Society of Friends emphasized inner light, pacifism, equality, and avoidance of hierarchical speech; this contributed to a relatively tolerant society.
TREATY WITH NATIVE PEOPLES: Lenni Lenape (Delaware) covenant of friendship; land purchased fairly; 1701 treaty with Susquehannocks; peaceful frontier relations in early years.
RELIGIOUS TOLERANCE: No established church in Pennsylvania, contrasting with Puritan New England; diversity included Quakers, Anglicans, Lutherans, Germans, Scots-Irish, and others; Rhode Island and some other colonies were more tolerant than most.
IMMIGRATION AND LABOR:
Large-scale immigration to Pennsylvania, aided by land incentives (e.g., 50 acres of land to settlers).
Dependence on indentured servitude and, to a lesser extent, enslaved labor in some sectors; Philadelphia emerged as a major port and commercial hub with Atlantic connections.
QUAKER-LABOR-TRADE DYNAMICS: Quaker merchants engaged in Atlantic trade and the African slave trade, though some Quakers opposed slavery and supported abolition movements.
EMIGRATION PATTERNS: Philadelphia drew immigrants from across Europe; the colony functioned as a magnet for misc. groups seeking religious and political tolerance.
NEW JERSEY AND INTERCOLONIAL DYNAMICS:
Quaker influence and religious tolerance contributed to the lack of an established church similar to many colonies; interconnected with Pennsylvania.
IMPORTANCE OF 4.1:
The Restoration colonies laid the groundwork for an expanded British empire in North America via proprietary governance, landcharters, and the establishment of key port cities and agricultural economies.
The era solidified a pattern of migration, labor systems, and trade networks that would shape colonial society and its eventual push toward independence.
4.2 The Glorious Revolution and the English Empire
CAUSES OF THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION:
James II sought centralized, absolute authority and Catholic monarchy; English Whigs and other Protestants feared a Catholic dynasty and an absolute monarchy modeled on Louis XIV.
Fear that a standing royal army in peacetime would suppress liberties.
JAMES II AND THE DOMINION OF NEW ENGLAND:
1686: James II created the Dominion of New England, consolidating MA, NH, Plymouth, CT, NY, and NJ under central rule; Sir Edmund Andros appointed as governor.
Andros’s regime challenged land titles, imposed reconfirmation fees, and enforced the Navigation Acts, sparking Puritan resentment among New Englanders.
THE GLORIOUS REVOLUTION (1688–1689):
Overthrow of James II by Whigs; William III and Mary II ascend the throne in 1689.
In the colonies, 1689 events mirrored events in England: Boston overthrew the Dominion regime and jailed Andros; Jacob Leisler led a Protestant uprising in New York.
1691: England restored control over the Province of New York.
ENGLISH LIBERTY AND THE BILL OF RIGHTS:
1689: Bill of Rights established constitutional monarchy, limiting the king’s powers and protecting parliamentary rights (speech, elections, petitions) and certain rights for subjects (trial by jury, habeas corpus).
John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government (1690) argued for government by contract, representative government, and the protection of life, liberty, and property; rejected the divine right of kings and emphasized Parliament’s central role.
Locke’s ideas deeply influenced colonial political thought and the concept of representation in government.
THE TOLERATION ACT OF 1689:
Granted broad religious toleration to nonconformist Protestants (e.g., Baptists, Congregationalists) in England and the empire, while Catholics remained excluded from political power.
Colonies extended the Toleration Act’s protections: several colonies (Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Delaware, New Jersey) allowed religious diversity by not establishing an official church.
IMPACT ON EMPIRE:
The Glorious Revolution reinforced limited government, religious toleration (within Protestant lines), and imperial restructuring that influenced colonial governance and attitudes toward authority.
4.3 An Empire of Slavery and the Consumer Revolution
SLAVERY AS A COLONIAL ECONOMIC CORNERSTONE:
Slavery underpinned economies across colonies, from rice plantations in the South to urban labor in the North; slavery created a racial hierarchy that shaped colonial society and political culture.
The Royal African Company (1660) held a monopoly on the English slave trade; it transported approximately 125{,}000 captives between 1672 and 1713, with about 20\% dying en route (the Middle Passage).
After the Company’s monopoly ended in 1689 due to the Glorious Revolution, more merchants entered the slave trade, expanding the slave labor force across colonies.
MIDDLE PASSAGE AND LABOR:
Enslaved Africans typically arrived in the West Indies (often Barbados) and were then sold or transported to mainland colonies.
Enslaved communities formed their own families and cultural practices as coping mechanisms against brutal conditions; maroon communities emerged in Jamaica, resisting recapture.
THE STONO REBELLION (1739):
Led by Jemmy, an Angolan (likely from the Kingdom of Kongo) with knowledge of African groups and languages; a large group of enslaved people rebelled in South Carolina.
After a confrontation with colonial militias, the rebellion was suppressed; many rebels were executed or sold to the West Indies.
RESULT: South Carolina passed the Negro Act of 1740 (An Act for the Better Ordering and Governing of Negroes and Other Slaves in the Province), restricting assembly, education, self-sufficiency, and travel for enslaved people.
NEW YORK CONSPIRACY TRIALS OF 1741 (CONEY ISLAND-STYLE FEARS):
A wave of fires in NYC fueled rumors of a slave uprising; authorities arrested nearly 200 enslaved and free people; 17 were executed, 13 Black men burned publicly, and 70 were sold into slavery or sent to the West Indies; some White participants were also executed or hanged.
The trials highlighted racial tensions and supported white supremacy, reinforcing control over enslaved populations.
THE COLONIAL GENTRY AND THE CONSUMER REVOLUTION:
The gentry emerged as a wealthy class in Chesapeake and other tobacco-growing regions; exemplified by figures such as William Byrd II of Westover, Virginia, who founded Richmond and kept diaries describing daily life on a plantation with enslaved labor (Figure 4.11).
Diary excerpts (e.g., Byrd’s entries from 1709–1710 in Figure 4.12) reveal elite life, daily routines, interactions with enslaved people, and the moral complexities of slavery.
CONSUMER REVOLUTION (18th century): An increase in consumer goods from Britain linked colonies to the empire; tea became a symbol of imperial consumption; print culture flourished (journals, pamphlets, books) and connected readers across the Atlantic.
PRINT CULTURE AND LITERATURE:
Cato’s Letters (John Trenchard and Thomas Gordon, 1720–1723): Whig political thought praising liberty and cautioning against threats to liberty.
The Spectator (1711–1714): Essays promoting refined, genteel manners and moral improvement; aimed at middle- and upper-class readers.
Novels (e.g., Daniel Defoe’s Robinson Crusoe; Samuel Richardson’s Pamela) found large audiences and influenced perceptions of virtue, gender, and society.
RELIGION, SLAVERY, AND SLAVERY ETHICS:
Some Quakers in Pennsylvania opposed slavery and sought abolition, reflecting tension within Enlightenment and religious dissent movements.
4.4 Great Awakening and Enlightenment
THE GREAT AWAKENING (18th century):
A transatlantic revival movement emphasizing personal, emotional religious experience over formal, doctrinal worship.
Key denominations involved: Congregationalists, Anglicans, and Presbyterians; promoted individual salvation and emotional conviction.
NEW LIGHTS vs OLD LIGHTS:
New Lights embraced revivalist fervor; Old Lights emphasized traditional, established religious practices.
NOTABLE REVIVALS AND FIGURES:
1743: James Davenport urged followers to burn books and later clothes; his extreme actions prompted backlash against revivalism.
Theodorus Frelinghuysen (New Jersey) spurred Presbyterian revivals in the Middle Colonies; Tennant helped establish a Presbyterian revival and supported seminaries.
Northampton, Massachusetts: Jonathan Edwards led an evangelical revival; famous sermon “Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God” (1741) used vivid depictions of hell to terrify sinners (Figure 4.13).
GEORGE WHITEFIELD: An Anglican evangelist whose itinerant preaching (1739–1740) electrified colonial audiences; contrasted with Old Lights and traditional church structures.
CONSEQUENCES: Growth of new denominations (Methodists, Presbyterians, Baptists) and a challenge to established churches (Anglicans, Congregationalists, Quakers); fostered a shared religious experience across the empire.
THE ENLIGHTENMENT (Age of Reason):
A cultural/intellectual movement emphasizing reason, science, and inquiry over religious dogma.
Core ideas: rationalism, empiricism, progressivism, and cosmopolitanism.
KEY THINKERS: John Locke, Isaac Newton, Voltaire; promoted ideas about social contract, limited government, and religious tolerance.
IMPACT: Promoted international networks of learning, scientific experimentation, and a redefinition of governance, society, and individual rights.
FREEMASONRY: A fraternal organization that propagated Enlightenment ideals of inquiry, tolerance, and civic virtue; linked to the broader culture of reason and sociopolitical reform.
BENJAMIN FRANKLIN (Figure 4.15): A central figure in American Enlightenment; a Boston-born printer who became a leading writer, publisher, scientist, and civic innovator in Philadelphia.
Life arc: Apprenticeship in a printing shop; run away to Philadelphia; founder of the Pennsylvania Gazette and Poor Richard’s Almanack; promotes practical knowledge and public institutions.
DEISM: Franklin’s religious stance emphasized a Creator who does not intervene in daily affairs; morality and public service framed Enlightenment virtue.
Major achievements: 1731 Library Company of Philadelphia; 1743 American Philosophical Society; 1749 establishment of Pennsylvania Hospital; 1751 electricity experiments and the development of lightning rods (Experiments and Observations on Electricity, 1751).
FOUNDING OF GEORGIA (1730s–1740s):
George II chartered Georgia in 1732 to James Oglethorpe and 20 proprietors as a reform colony to provide a haven for the “worthy poor” and to serve as a buffer between South Carolina and Spanish Florida.
1733: Settlement at Savannah; Oglethorpe’s plan envisioned frugal, egalitarian settlement without alcohol and slavery, but these prohibitions were not sustained; by the 1750s, Georgia adopted rice cultivation and enslaved labor became integral.
SIGNIFICANCE OF 4.4:
The Great Awakening and the Enlightenment generated competing currents—emotion and faith versus reason and inquiry—that shaped colonial culture, education, and politics across the Atlantic world.
4.5 Wars for Empire
OVERVIEW: The British Empire fought multiple wars against Catholic France (and against Spain in some conflicts) to control North American and global trade and territory. These wars forged alliances with Native peoples and reshaped colonial identities.
WARS, ONGOING FRONTS, AND NARRATIVES:
King William’s War (1688–1697) / War of the League of Augsburg (European name): North American theater primarily between New England and New France; outcome was inconclusive.
Queen Anne’s War (1702–1713) / War of Spanish Succession (European name): Fought in Florida, New England, and New France; in Canada, France retained Acadia and Newfoundland, but could not secure Quebec; Deerfield raid (1704) highlighted frontier violence.
War of Jenkins’ Ear (1739–1742): Fought over the Georgia–Spanish Florida border; named after Captain Jenkins’s severed ear; disrupted Atlantic trade; ended in 1742 with limited strategic gains.
King George’s War (1744–1748) / War of Austrian Succession (European name): Northern colonies and New France; 1745 capture of Fort Louisbourg, Cape Breton; returned to France in the Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle (1748) after concessions; similar to other limited victories.
FRENCH AND INDIAN WAR (1754–1763) / Seven Years’ War (European name): The decisive conflict in North America; centered on control of western Pennsylvania and the Ohio River Valley.
Fort Duquesne (1754): French and allied Native forces held the fort at the confluence of the Allegheny, Monongahela, and Ohio Rivers; Washington ordered a raid and fire on the French, launching the war’s North American phase.
Early setbacks (1754–1755): Washington’s fort failed, Braddock’s expedition (1755) resulted in a devastating defeat; subsequent campaigns saw mixed outcomes, including losses at Fort Oswego and Fort William Henry (1756–1757).
TURNING POINTS (1758–1759): William Pitt mobilized enormous resources; Native tribes (Iroquois, Delaware, Shawnee) aligned with the British; 1759: Quebec fell to the British; 1760: Montreal fell; British victory and collapse of New France’s empire in North America.
TREATY OF PARIS (1763): Ended the war; Britain gained control of New France’s territories in North America, Caribbean sugar islands, French trading posts in India, and some posts on Africa’s west coast. This transformed Britain into a truly global empire.
CONSEQUENCES AND IMPACTS:
Imperial debt: The wars left Britain deeply in debt, prompting 1760s–1770s imperial reforms that attempted to raise revenue and tighten control over the colonies.
Colonial identity and tension: The shared military effort strengthened British-American ties but also sowed seeds of colonial discontent with imperial policy and taxation, contributing to tensions that culminated in the American Revolution.
GLOBAL EMPIRE: Britain’s gains in North America and beyond solidified its status as a global empire, setting the stage for a broader Atlantic world of commerce, governance, and cultural exchange.
CLOSING NOTION:
The wars linked Atlantic and European theaters; they shaped military tactics, colonial administration, and the social, economic, and political fabric of British America, while sowing the seeds of future imperial challenges.
Connections, implications, and key ideas across 4.1–4.5
Imperial framework and mercantilism:
Navigation Acts and related legislation (1660, 1663, 1673, 1696) were designed to regulate trade to benefit the English crown, yet enforcement varied due to “salutary neglect” under leaders like Robert Walpole, which allowed colonial commerce to flourish outside strict enforcement.
The 1733 Molasses Act illustrates how trade restrictions could be undermined by smuggling and colonial improvisation.
Labor systems and inequality:
The expansion of enslaved labor across the empire, along with indentured servitude, created a racialized social order and a colonial gentry class that displayed their status through material culture and plantations.
Legal codes (e.g., Barbados slave codes) influenced slavery laws in the Carolinas and other colonies, shaping the lived experiences of enslaved Africans and their communities.
Religion and ideas:
The Glorious Revolution and the 1689 Bill of Rights fostered a political vocabulary about liberty, representation, and constitutional governance that informed colonial political culture.
The Great Awakening and the Enlightenment offered competing visions—emotional religious revival and reason-based inquiry—that influenced education, publishing, and civic life across the empire.
Culture and print capitalism:
The consumer revolution linked colonial households to British goods and to a broader Atlantic print culture (pamphlets, newspapers, novels), reinforcing a sense of shared imperial identity while also enabling local critique and debate.
Geography and Native interactions:
Native alliances and conflicts (e.g., Yamasee War, Iroquois neutrality) shaped colonial expansion, frontier policy, and relations with imperial powers, underscoring the pivotal role of Indigenous nations in Atlantic history.
Long-term trajectory:
The late-war debt and imperial reforms contributed to political frictions between Parliament and the colonies, foreshadowing the tensions that culminate in the American Revolution and the reconfiguration of the empire in the late 18th century.
NOTE ON FIGURES AND EXERCISES:
Figures (e.g., 4.2 Charles II and Restoration, 4.4 New York Conspiracy Trials, 4.15 Franklin portrait) illustrate themes such as colonial wealth, governance, and Enlightenment influence.
Suggested explorations:
Explore Charleston and the Lowcountry’s slave society and rice economy through Charleston Museum and related resources.
Read excerpts from the New York Conspiracy Trials (1741) to understand the hysteria and racial dynamics of the period.
Examine Franklin’s writings and projects to understand Enlightenment practical science and civic institutions in colonial America.
All numerical references are included as ext{numbers in LaTeX where applicable}, for example: population figures 250{,}000 (early 1700s) and 1{,}000{,}000 (by 1750), acreages 160{,}000 acres for the Livingston estate, and slave transport figures 125{,}000 captives via the Royal African Company with ~20 ext{%} mortality on the Middle Passage.