Study Guide – Test 2 PLSC 2305 – Spring 2025

Interest Groups

• First Amendment Protection: The right to lobby is protected by the First Amendment, under freedom of speech and petition.

• Lobbying Strategies:

  • Insider (Direct) Lobbying: Personal meetings, testifying before Congress, drafting legislation.

  • Outsider (Indirect) Lobbying: Public campaigns, protests, media outreach.

• Free Riders: People who benefit from an interest group's efforts without contributing.

• Logic of Collective Action: Explains why individuals don’t always join groups even when they benefit.

• Iron Triangles: Stable relationships between interest groups, government agencies, and legislators.

• Selective Benefits: Private benefits (material, informational, solidary, purposive) offered to overcome free rider problems.

• PACs (Political Action Committees): Organizations that raise and distribute campaign funds, usually favoring incumbents.

• Interest Groups vs. Political Parties: Interest groups influence policy, while parties seek to control government.

• Revolving Door Syndrome: Movement of officials between government and lobbying firms.

• Amicus Curiae Briefs: “Friend of the court” briefs filed to influence judicial decisions.

Elections and Voting

• Single-Member vs. Multi-Member Districts:

  • U.S. uses single-member districts (one winner per district).

• Majority vs. Plurality Elections:

  • Majority: Winner must get over 50% of votes.

  • Plurality: Winner only needs the most votes.

• Proportional Representation: Seats in government are awarded based on vote percentage (not used in U.S.).

• Voter Turnout Trends:

  • Most likely to vote: Older, wealthier, more educated individuals.

  • Least likely: Younger, lower-income, less educated.

• Electoral College:

  • States allocate votes based on congressional representation.

  • 270 electoral votes needed to win.

• Suffrage Expansion:

  • 14th Amendment: Citizenship rights.

  • 15th Amendment: Voting rights regardless of race.

  • 19th Amendment: Women’s suffrage.

  • 26th Amendment: Lowered voting age to 18.

• Low Voter Turnout Causes: Voter ID laws, registration barriers, election timing.

• Retrospective vs. Prospective Voting:

  • Retrospective: Based on past performance (more common).

  • Prospective: Based on future promises.

• Reapportionment & Gerrymandering:

  • Reapportionment: Adjusting congressional seats after the census.

  • Gerrymandering: Drawing district lines to benefit a party.

Political Parties

• Definition & Functions: Organizations that nominate candidates and organize government.

• Party Platform: A party’s official policy positions.

• Party Organization: Local, state, and national levels (strongest at state level).

• Why a Two-Party System?

  • Electoral rules favor two parties.

  • Third parties struggle due to ballot access laws.

• Oldest U.S. Political Parties:

  • Democratic Party (founded in 1828).

  • Republican Party (founded in 1854).

• Divided Government: When different parties control the presidency and Congress.

Media

• Forms of Media: Print, TV, radio, internet, social media.

• Differences from Other Democracies:

  • More privately owned media, less government funding.

• Federalist Papers: Essays promoting the U.S. Constitution.

• Media Ownership: A few corporations control most outlets (e.g., Disney, Comcast).

• Bias in Media: Some outlets favor political ideologies.

• Changes in Presidential Coverage: More adversarial, 24/7 cycle, increased scrutiny.

• Narrowcasting: Media targeting specific audiences.

• Agenda Setting: Media influences which issues the public and politicians prioritize.

• Most Politically Important Newspaper: The New York Times.

• First Televised Presidential Debate:

  • 1960, Kennedy vs. Nixon (Kennedy’s appearance helped him win).