Research methods (non scientific methods and the scientifc method)

Research Methods Readings Notes

Research Methods For The Behavioral Sciences

Chapter 1- Introduction, Acquiring Knowledge, and the Scientific Method

Learning Objective

• Compare and contrast the nonscientific methods for knowing or acquiring knowledge (tenacity, intuition, authority, the rational method, and the empirical method). Identify an example and explain the limitations of each method.

• Identify and describe the steps of the scientific method.

• Define induction and deduction and explain the role of each in the scientific method.

• Distinguish between a hypothesis and a prediction.

• Explain what it means to say that the scientific method is empirical, public, and objective.

• Distinguish between science and pseudoscience.

• Distinguish between qualitative and quantitative research and recognize examples of each.

• Identify and describe the steps in the research process.

Content

Terms

Pseudoscience: Set of Ideas Based on non scientific theory,  faith and belief

Rational Method (rationalism): Method that involves seeking answers by the use of logical reasoning.

eg.Having a frightening experience with a dog causes fear of dogs in the future 

is Amy is afraid of dogs?

therefore she has a fear of dogs in the past

If the premise statements are correct the conclusion is guaranteed to be correct

Limitation: the conclusion is not necassariy ture unless both premise statements are true

Examples fo using it when you consider what do when you have an exam but your car wont start so consider either

• Getting the bus

• Or borrowing a car

Conclusions are tested by ensuring they conform to rules of logic

Empirical Method (empiricism): Method using observation and direct sensory experience

Finding answer by observing the world

Eg. you can find out the weight of each students by having them stpe on a scale

Its time consuming and dangerous 

Use of employing direct iobsevtaion as source of knowledge

Method of acquiring Knowelege: Way in which a person can know things or discover answers to questions

Method of tenacity: Method of which information is accepted because it has always been believed

Method of intuition: Method in which information is accepted on the basis of a hunch

Method of authority: Method in which a person relies on information or answers from experts

Method of faith: Method of authority in which people have unquestioning trust in an authority figure

Premise statement: Sentence used in logical reasoning that describes facts or assumptions

Argument: set of premise statements that are logically combined to yield a conclusion

Pseudoscience: A set of ideas based on non scientific theories, faith and beliefs

Rational Method: Method of seeking answers through logical reasoning

Empirical Method: Method of utilising observations and direct sensory experience

Method of acquiring Knowledge: a way in which an individual knows the answer or seeking it

Method of tenacity: method in which a theory is upmost believed by society for eg. we all need water to stay alive.

Eg. opposites attract

You can’t teach an old dog new tricks

The more we are exposed to statements the more we believe them

Persistants of superstitions (eg. never walk under a ladder)

The cons is that it is not accurate and ther is no method for correcting erroneous ideas

Method of which information is accepted because it has always been believed

Method of intuition: the method of which its based on a hunch which is an idea that is believed without concrete evidence

It is when you know something as we have a gut feeling about it

Applies to making personal choices lie (eg.what should i have for dinner?)

Predictions and descriptions from psychics are intuitive however it has no mechanics for separating accurate from inaccurate knowledge

Method in which information is accepted on the basis of a hunch

Method of authority: The method of believing info an expert

Eh. going to a library or website to read works of a expert for eg.using google 

Experts include..

• Physicians

• scientists

• Psychologists

• Professors

• Stockbrokers

• Lawyers

It doesnt always provide accurate information as it can be biased

Eg. democrats and republicans have different answers to same questions

A pitfall is people often an experts opinion without checking

Method of faith: the method of authority meaning believing in an a authority figure

Eg. young children have faith in any infor given by their parents

To increase confidence in the information you can…

Evaluate the source of information 

Evaluate the information itself

Premise statement: a sentence composed of logical facts and judgments

Sentence used in logical reasoning that describes facts or assumptions

Argument:a set or premise statements logically combined to yield a conclusion

Terms

Induction: Use of small sets of observations to form general statements about larger sets of observations

Hypothesis: Statement that provides a tentative description or explanation for the relationship between variables

Deduction: Use of a general statement as the basis for reaching a conclusion about specific examples

Scientific method: Acquiring knowledge that functions via formation and testing of hypotheses.

Replication: 

Repetition of a research study with the same basic procedures used in the original study

Quantative research: Scientific study based on measuring variables numerically and submitting them to statsistucal analyses.

Qualitative research: scientific study that is based on observations summarized and interpreted in a narrative report.

Blurting  

Red: if wrong

Green: if right

Orange: Partially correct

1.1 Methods of knowing and acquiring knowledge

Learning objective: Compare and conrarst the non scientific methods for knowing or acquiring nowlege (tenacity, intuition, authority, the rational method and empirical method) identify and explain he limitations of each method.

Consider these questions..

• Does multitasking make you more efficient with your time?

• Does having more friends make you less vulnerable to depression?

• Are children of divorced parents less likely to be satisfied with their romantic relationships?

• Are girls more likely to cyberbully than boys?

• Does eating cake for breakfast make dieters more likely to stick to their diets later in the day?

• Are adolescents who play violent video games more aggressive than adolescents who do not play violent video games?

• Does playing brain games in adulthood make it less likely you will develop Alzheimer’s?

Summary

The scientific method

Leranign objective:

Identify and describe the steps of the scientific method.

• Define induction and deduction and explain the role of each in the scientific method.

• Distinguish between a hypothesis and a prediction.

• Explain what it means to say that the scientific method is empirical, public, and objective.

• Distinguish between science and pseudoscience.

Steps of scientific method

Step 1: Observe behaviour or either phenomena

Observe the word around you until behvior catches your attention

For eg. the authors of the swearing study observed themselves orother sweign in response to pain.

Process of generalization is alson own as inductive reasoning which means to reach a general conclusion based on few specific examples eg. you taste a green apple and discover its sour.A second green apple is also sour and so is the third.then your each the conlsuison is that all green aples are sour.

Step 2: form a hypothesis

Identify other afctors or variables asccotaed witb your obsrevation eg. what iother variables are associated with paina nd swearing?

Possibiloity that are factors

• Swearing in response to pain is more common when pain is self inflicted when its from an external source

• Swearing in response to pain is more acceptable, more common when you are alone than when in a social enviroment

• Swearing in response to pain is related to intensity pain directly.

You need to selected on these epxlaination to be evaluated ina scientific research study.

Eg. Swearing is a common response to pain because the act of swearing alterns the experience and decreases the perceived intensity of pain.

This is a tentative answer that is testable and evaluated

Step 3: Use hypothesis to generate testable prediction

Take the hypothesis and apply it to a specific real word situation

One specific prediction si that participants shoul be less responsive to painful stimuli when swearing than when they arent.

This is when we are using logic to make a prediction which is cause using deductive reasoning. begin which a general statement the make deductions

Either observations will provide support for hypothesis or refute it for a prediction to be testable both outcomes must be possible

Steo 4: evaluate the prediction by making systematic planned observations

Research and data collection phase of the method.

Evaluate the prediction using direct observation

eg. Researches created a painful experience by having people put their hand into ice cold water then measured pain tolerance by measuring how long each partciopant was ble to withstand the pain. (emprical test of hypothesis)

Step 5: use observation to support,refute or refine hypothesis

Compare the actual observations with prediuctions made from hypothesis.

To what extent do observations agree with predictions?

For eg, researchers found greater pain tolerance (longer time) in swearing condition than the neural word condition supporting the hypothesis.

Science is empirical public and objective meaning answers are obtained through observations

Scrutinize-

Skepticism-

Science vs pseduoscience

• The notion of testable and refutable hypotheses 

• If a research study produces results that do not support a theory it is euitehr abandoned or midfield to accommodate the new results, in eitehr case the negative results are accpeted

• In pesdoscience  discount them ior epxlain them awy wiotuh altering the original theory.

• Science is objective and unbiased 0f all available evidence

• Pseudoscience rely of subjective vidence lie tesmonioals and anecdotes reports of asucess.

• Science actively test its won theories and asdpst theories when new evidence aoprees

• Psedoscience ingot non supporting evidence and traits criticism as personal attack

A hypothesis is a general statement and  aprediciton is a specific statement.

Summary

Non scientific

Method of Intution

• Definition: Believe something because it feels true

• Example: know your friend is having a bad day

• limitation: no mechanism for telling true conclusions from untrue conclusions

Method of authority

• Definition: accepting information is true as it comes from an experts or authority figure 

• Example: taking medical advice as it came from a doctor without understanding the reasoning

• limitation: experts can be wrong or biased

Method of tenacity

• Definition: Holding firm beliefs simply because ti been believed for a long time

• Example: beloiving in traditional remedies for eg. rice water makes your hair grow faster

• limitation: resistant to change even when evidence contradicts this belief 

Method of rationality

• Definition: Using logical reasoning and deduction to lead to a conclusion

• Example: Finding out solutions for when your car had broke down before an exam.

• Limitation: can be limited by false premises can lead to unsound conclusions

Method of empiricism

• Definition: gathering knowledge through direct observation and sensory experience rather than logic

• Example: conducting surveys to understand consumer behaviour or testing if people rember things better in quiet or noisy rooms

• Limitation: Its time consuming and dangerous 

Scientific method

Ask a question- like what would you like to know?

Make a hypothesis- create an educated guess about the answer, identify other factors or variables associated with your observation 

Make a prediction- This is when we are using logic to make a prediction which is cause using deductive reasoning.begin which a general statement the make deductions

Test the prediction-Research and data collection phase of the method.

Evaluate the prediction using direct observation

Analyse and draw conclusions - Compare the actual observations with prediuctions made from hypothesis.

Example: Are women more emotional and moody than men?

Hypothesis:

Women are more emotional and moody than men due to hormonal fluctuations and societal expectations that encourage emotional expression.

Prediction:

If hormones influence mood, then women, who experience more hormonal fluctuations (e.g., menstrual cycle, pregnancy, menopause), should show greater mood variability than men.

Test the Prediction:

• Conduct surveys measuring emotional expression in men and women.

• Analyze hormone level changes and their correlation with mood swings.

• Study cultural influences on emotional expression between genders.

Evaluate the Prediction:

• Compare mood patterns in men and women through direct observation and collected data.

• Check if hormone fluctuations and societal norms align with emotional differences.

Analyze and Draw Conclusions:

• If women consistently show greater mood variability and emotional expression, the hypothesis is supported.

• If no significant difference is found, or other factors influence emotions more, the hypothesis may be incorrect or need revision.

Induction vs deduction

Inductive Reasoning (Induction):

• Starts with specific observations and moves to a general conclusion.

• Example:

  • Observation: Many women report experiencing mood swings before their menstrual cycle.

  • Observation: Studies show women express emotions more openly.

  • Conclusion: Women may be more emotional and moody than men.

Deductive Reasoning (Deduction):

• Starts with a general theory or principle and applies it to a specific case.

• Example:

  • Premise: Hormones influence mood.

  • Premise: Women experience more hormonal fluctuations than men.

  • Conclusion: Women may be more prone to emotional changes.