exam 3 Study guide Psychology Modules 19-28 Review

Module 19: Basic Learning and Classical Conditioning

• Learning: A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience.

• Types of Conditioning:

  • Classical Conditioning: Learning through association; involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus (US) to elicit a conditioned response (CR).
  • Operant Conditioning: Learning based on the consequences of behavior (reinforcements and punishments).
  • Cognitive Learning: Involves understanding, knowing, or anticipating.

• Key Concepts in Classical Conditioning:

  • US (Unconditioned Stimulus): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response.
  • UR (Unconditioned Response): The natural response to the US.
  • CS (Conditioned Stimulus): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, comes to trigger a CR.
  • CR (Conditioned Response): The learned response to the CS.
  • Generalization: The tendency to respond similarly to stimuli that resemble the CS.
  • Discrimination: The ability to distinguish between different stimuli.

• Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery:

  • Extinction: The diminishing of a CR when the CS is no longer paired with the US.
  • Spontaneous Recovery: The reappearance of an extinguished CR after a rest period.

Module 20: Operant Conditioning

• Shaping: Gradually guiding behavior toward the desired outcome through successive approximations.

• Types of Consequences:

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior.
  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing an aversive stimulus to increase a behavior.
  • Positive Punishment: Adding an aversive stimulus to decrease a behavior.
  • Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior.

• Primary vs. Conditioned Reinforcers:

  • Primary Reinforcers: Innately satisfying, such as food or water.
  • Conditioned Reinforcers: Stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through association with primary reinforcers.

• Reinforcement Schedules:

  1. Fixed-Ratio: Reinforcement after a set number of responses.
  2. Variable-Ratio: Reinforcement after an unpredictable number of responses.
  3. Fixed-Interval: Reinforcement after a set time period.
  4. Variable-Interval: Reinforcement after varying time intervals.

• Drawbacks of Physical Punishment:

  • Can lead to aggression, avoidance, and does not teach appropriate behavior.

Module 21: Biology, Cognition, and Learning

• Observational Learning: Learning by observing others, not through direct experience.

• Bandura's Study:

  • Focused on aggressive behavior, found that children imitate aggressive acts observed on media (Bobo doll experiment).

• Mirror Neurons: Neurons that fire both when an animal acts and when it observes the same action performed by another.

• Modeling Effects:

  • Prosocial Modeling: Positive and constructive behaviors that can influence observers positively.
  • Antisocial Modeling: Negative behaviors that can have harmful effects on observers.

Module 22-24: Memory

• Key Terms:

  • Encoding: The process of converting sensory input into a form usable in memory.
  • Storage: The retention of encoded information over time.
  • Retrieval: The process of accessing and bringing into consciousness information stored in memory.

• Chunking: Grouping information into meaningful units to enhance memory.

• Three Stages of Memory:

  1. Sensory Memory: Brief storage of sensory information.
  2. Short-term Memory: Limited capacity (7±2 items); lasts about 20-30 seconds without rehearsal.
  3. Long-term Memory: Potentially unlimited capacity; information can last from minutes to a lifetime.
  • Iconic Memory: Visual stimuli.
  • Echoic Memory: Auditory stimuli.
  • Explicit Memory: Conscious memories of facts or events.
  • Implicit Memory: Unconscious memories, such as skills.

• Processing:

  • Automatic Processing: Unconscious encoding of incidental information.
  • Effortful Processing: Requires conscious effort and attention.

• Serial Position Effect: Our tendency to recall best the last (recency effect) and first (primacy effect) items in a list.

• Retrieval Influences:

  • External contexts and internal emotions can significantly affect memory retrieval.

• Memory Failures:

  • Encoding Failure: Information never enters long-term memory.
  • Decay: Memories fade over time if not accessed.
  • Interference: Information can conflict with other memories.
  • Retrieval Failure: Inability to access stored information.

• Types of Interference:

  • Proactive Interference: Older information interferes with new information.
  • Retroactive Interference: New information impairs the retrieval of old information.

• Memory Accuracy:

  • Our memories can be distorted or influenced, evidenced by the misinformation effect (incorrect information alters memories) and source amnesia (forgetting the source of a memory).

• Improving Memory: Techniques include the spacing effect (distributing study sessions), chunking, and minimizing interference when recalling information.

Module 25: Thinking

• Concepts and Prototypes:

  • Concepts: Mental categories for organizing information.
  • Prototypes: The best example or representation of a concept.

• Obstacles to Problem Solving:

  1. Confirmation Bias: Tendency to search for information that supports our preconceptions.
  2. Fixation: Inability to see a problem from a new perspective.

• Heuristics:

  • Representativeness Heuristic: Judging based on stereotypes.
  • Availability Heuristic: Judging based on how readily examples come to mind.

• Key Terms:

  • Overconfidence: Overestimation of our knowledge or abilities.
  • Belief Perseverance: Clinging to one's initial beliefs even after being discredited.
  • Framing: The way information is presented can affect decision-making.

Module 26: Language

• Language Definition: A system of communication using sounds, symbols, or gestures.

• Receptive vs. Productive Language:

  • Receptive Language: The ability to understand language.
  • Productive Language: The ability to produce language.

• Language Acquisition Theories:

  • Skinner's Theory: Language is learned through operant conditioning.
  • Chomsky's Theory: Children are born with an innate ability for language acquisition (theory of universal grammar).

• Critical Period for Language Acquisition: Sensitive periods in development during which language acquisition occurs more easily. Questions exist whether animals possess language-like systems.

Modules 27-28: Intelligence

• Definitions of Intelligence: Differ based on theorists:

  • Spearman: General intelligence (g-factor) underlies all mental abilities.
  • Gardner: Multiple intelligences (e.g., linguistic, logical-mathematical, etc.).
  • Sternberg: Triarchic theory (Analytical, Creative, Practical intelligences).

• Sternberg's Three Intelligences:

  1. Analytical: Problem-solving abilities akin to traditional IQ.
  2. Creative: Ability to adapt to new situations and formulate novel ideas.
  3. Practical: Skills in everyday tasks and real-world scenarios.

• Origins of Intelligence Testing:

  • Historical roots in early 20th-century France; involves calculating IQ based on mental age and chronological age (IQ = (Mental Age/Chronological Age) * 100).

• IQ Score Differences: Research indicates potential gender and ethnic differences in average IQ scores, highlighting the influence of environment and culture on intelligence assessment.