Classical Greece, Persia, and Rome

Classical Greece

Geographical Influence

• Greece is a peninsula surrounded by water= easy access to water and ships

• Few natural resources trading with other lands by sea, easily picking up new ideas, relied on trade

• Very Mountainous= hard to unite, politically diverse, decentralized, small populations

• Creation of City-States (Polis)

  -city-states were fiercely independent

  -culturally/religiously similar

  -competitive rivalries in the larger city-states: Athens, Sparta, Thebes, Corinth

• Expansion was in the form of voluntary colonies, not conquest= Spread of Greek Culture

Rise of the Greek City-States

• Irregular Coastline made seafaring and trade important

• Greeks transported grain, timber, gold, and other metals from one point to another

• Greeks became open to new ideas and technology from their trading partners

  • ex. When Phoenicians developed an alphabet that made writing and reading easier, the Greeks quickly adopted it with all the benefits of more efficient communication

• Geography shaped Greek politics. Terrain prevented the Greek people from uniting under one government, they usually had independent local governments.

• Greece developed in competition with an expanded Persian Empire

Social and Political Systems

• Citizenship of a polis (city-states) was confined to males, Greece was a patriarchy, and only free ones. Slaves and foreigners could not be citizens.

Different Types of Government in Greece:

• Monarchy- a king ruled the state

• Aristocracy- nobles ruled

• Oligarchy- a few wealthy landowners and merchants ruled

• Democracy- all citizens participated

Comparison of City-States

Sparta:

• 2 Kings

• focused on military training

• all males were soldiers- boys were taken away from their mothers at age 7 and raised with extensive training and endurance lessons to make them solid soldiers. Men served in the active military or the reserve until age 60

• Women had more freedom compared to Greek women- they received education, could own property, and were not secluded in their homes. Won praise for staying fit and participating in athletics so they would bear healthy sons to increase the size of the army. Responsibility was the inculcation of Spartan values in their children

• school: 7-20 years old

• harsh treatments- boys suffered physical abuse, went without food, and were ridiculed for showing any sign of weakness

• people could not travel

• killed weak babies

• metal bars for money

• Relied on helots or slaves to do agricultural labor needed to feed everyone.

• Keeping helots under control and supporting the military were key functions of the Spartan government.

• Government: oligarchy that shared power between two kings

• Ideas originating from outside the polis were discouraged as destabilizing, and social life was tightly controlled.

• Spartans believed that top-down government power was necessary for a stable and prosperous society

Athens:

• focused on education

• Remembered for political and intellectual achievements

• taught public speaking

• men had different jobs

• women stayed home

• Parthenon- a temple with a 30-foot statue of Athena

• encouraged travel

• coin money

• Government: Early governments were monarchies, followed by a period of aristocracy

Similarities:

• In Greece

• City-States

• Religion

• Myths

• Language

• Slaves

• City council

Athenian Politics

• wealthy nobles and merchants overthrow Tyrant (Absolute rulers) who instituted Draconian laws

• Direct Democracy= All citizens allowed to take part in the Assembly and vote

• Women, slaves, and foreigners (more than half the population) were excluded from political participation

Greek Rationalism

• Emphasis on argument, logic, and relentless questioning of received wisdom

• Commitment to a rational and nonreligious (secular) explanation for the material world

• Key players:

  • Socrates= Socratic method, question everything

  • Plato= academy, not an advocate of Democracy

  • Aristotle= Ethics, moderation (Golden Mean), Empiricism

Persian Wars

• 5th century

• Darius defeated Greek colonies in Asia Minor (Turkey), then wanted to annex all of Greece

• Greeks rallied to beat Persians

• Preserved Greek Independence

Peloponnesian War

• 5th century

• Sparta vs. Athens (and the Delian League)

• Sparta is victorious (temporarily)

Macedonia

• 4th century, King Philip

  • admired Greek culture

  • defeats Sparta and remaining Greek City-States

• His Son, Alexander (20) came to power after Phillip is assassinated

• King Philip was taught by Aristotle

• Alexander conquered the Persian Empire

• Spread Hellenistic culture from Europe to India

Alexander the Great

• Governed his far-flung conquests by picking native residents to help him rule

• Alexander cemented his relations with leaders in the area by marrying several Persian women and urging his leading generals to do the same

• Founded the city of Alexandria which became a center of Hellenistic culture and a major seaport

• Alexander’s conquests allowed the Greek language, architecture, mythology, and philosophy to become widespread

• The continuity of Greek culture held strong even as Greek governmental unity declined

• His death ushered in a time of chaos

• Failed to designate an heir, so his generals battled with one another to establish their own kingdoms

• Greek-influenced lands became divided into several

• These regions eventually fell to the Roman Empire

Classical Persia

Persia Empire

• also known as the Achaemenid Empire

• Established under Cyrus the Great

  • Religious Tolerance

  • Fair Rule

  • Royal Road

  • Elaborate bureaucracy (“eyes and ears of empire”)

Persia Under Darius

• Supported claim to the throne by divine right

• Empire organized into Provinces —→ run by local nobility responsible to the emperor

  • spies reported on the behavior of local leaders

• Lead to efficient bureaucracy —→ created system of regular tax payments

• Built a new capital city (Persepolis)

• Built Royal Road (was a series of roads)

  • encouraged trade and fast communication

  • Built along the Silk Road —→ used by caravans

• Had religious tolerance and culture = did not enforce uniformity

  • as long as they paid taxes, they could have whatever religion they wanted

• Created Qanat (Channel) System = underground irrigation canals

Religion

• monotheism

Persia vs. Greece

Different religions

Persia showed high tolerance for diverse customs and traditions. They had one emperor in control, though they allowed local autonomy

Greeks were more united culturally through religion, language, and traditions such as the Olympic games, but were less united politically

The two empires demonstrate the power of syncretism. They became more alike.

Trade helped form a cultural synthesis of Persian astronomy and Zoroastrianism with Greek language, literature, gods, mystery cults, and various styles of government

This shaped the context for the Roman Empire

Classical Rome

Start of Rome

• Roman civilization developed on a giant peninsula- did not prevent Italian unity

• Owes much of its early history to the combining of three groups: Etruscans, Latins, and Greeks

Etruscans

• gained an alphabet from the Greek colonists of southern Italy, with whom they traded

• skills included building with stone

• mined iron, copper, and tin and made metal weapons and tools

• were probably responsible for the roads and temples of this early Roman period

• military tactics displayed in battles

Political Traditions

• welcoming to outcasts and outsiders

• local tribes agreed to have a rotating kingship, which began with Romulus (the supposed son of the war god Mars)

Accomplishments

• they drained swamps, which gave them a large amount of fertile land

• Rome location was good for trade and yet far enough from the ocean to be easily defended against sea-borne attackers

• soon became the central point for interaction with other settlements in Italy

• Government: centralized

From Monarchy to Republic

• Tarquinius Superbus (tyrant), opposition arose among the patricians (wealthy landowners), they overthrew him

• they established a government of elected officials- a republic (a representative government)

• at first only the wealthiest and the most prestigious Roman citizens were represented in the Senate

Plebeians and Magistrates

• plebeians- small farmers, tradespeople, craftworkers, and common soldiers

• Assembly of Tribes and the Assembly of Centuries- where plebeians could pass laws and select magistrates

• magistrates- officials who carried out the day-to-day operations of government

• Tribunes- elected to represent the plebeians, they could exercise veto power in the Senate

• the most important magistrates were two consuls, elected to preside over the government and to serve as commanders of armies in military campaigns

• one consul could veto the acts of the other- one of the earliest examples of checks and balances

Rule of Law and Conquests

• The laws of the Twelve Tables- putting written laws in the full view of the public provided a check on the injustices of the judiciary system, and important concept built into numerous later constitutions

• Rule of law created a career path for lawyers

• The existence of courts, references to legal terms, and entire orations given in the course of lawsuits testify to the significance of the rule of law in the Republic

Roman expansion

• Rome encouraged central Italy’s other city-states to revolt against the Etruscans.

• After they were free the Romans conquered them

• Adept leaders and smoothly organized armies became the Roman trademark

• Citizenship was often the reward for supplying troops and tribute to Rome

Greece and Gaul

• As Rome extended its powers into southern Italy it developed conflict with Greeks over control of Greek colonies

• The Romans defeated a Greek Army that had invaded Italy to protect the Greek colonies there

• Took control of what remained of the empire created by Alexander the Great

• Romans moved north and west to conquer parts of Gaul (what is now France)

Carthage

• A city-state on the north coast of Africa

• They fought a series of three wars- Punic Wars

• Destroyed the city, enslaved its population, and, according to legend, salted the land to make it infertile, condemning Carthage to poverty

• Ending a war with the complete destruction of an enemy is known as Carthaginian Peace

Roman Military

• all citizens between ages 17 and 46 who owned land were required to serve in the Roman legions

• Most soldiers were poor farmers

Roman Society

• Patricians and plebeians were influential in Roman Society

• Most slaves were foreigners captured during Rome’s wars

• In poor families, raising and educating Roman Children was carried out by slaves, often Greek ones

• Conditions of slavery became harsher, especially after the Spartacus Rebellion

• The existence of so many slaves slowed down growth and innovation in the Roman economy. Slave Labor was so cheap that landowners had little incentive to develop new technology

• The low cost of slave labor was one of two factors that caused a decline in the number of small landowners (farmers could not compete against slave production)

• Only men could be citizens.

• Women could not vote

• Young women of high social position usually received some level of education

• Women could inherit property and other forms of wealth from their fat

Civil Wars

• Strong Roman military leaders raised armies through promises of land; these promises lead to the existence of of personal armies more loyal to individual leaders than to Rome

• Caesar was a popularis, an aristocrat whose strength was based on his support from the common people of Rome

• Julius Caesar became dictator for life

• Accomplished major reforms such as revising the calendar, increasing the size of the Senate, extending citizenship, and granting land to some poor veterans

• adding conquests for Rome as far

• Caesar was killed, and the competition between the two remaining generals- Octavian and Marc Antony- led to the downfall of the Republic and the establishment of the Roman Empire

The Roman Empire (27 B.C.E- 476 C.E.)

• Octavian- his goals were to strengthen family values, keep the peace, and promote prosperity. Result: successful, well-governed empire that extended throughout the Mediterranean

• The next 200 years became known as Pax Romana

Social Classes

• Equestrians could hold positions of authority in government but not ones as influential as those occupied by senators and their families

• Augustus offered a tax bonus to members of this class (senatorial) who had more than two children because he wished to see the numbers of the aristocracy increase

• Slavery continued to increase as both businesses and large estates increased.

• Greek slaves were in high demand as physicians and teachers, maintaining the continuity of Greek culture

• Slaves could sometimes buy their freedom, becoming newly rich “freedmen”

• During the empire period, the rights of women expanded over what existed in early centuries

• Women could divorce

• Women began to exercise more property rights as new inheritance laws allowed them to gain and keep control of property.

• The economic worth of women who ran businesses gave them some political influence

• Roman women had more influence than their counterparts to the east int he Hellenistic world, in India, or in China

Law

• Roman law continued to spread to all parts of the empire (Ex. Paul to insist on being taken to Rome for trial as a citizen

Literature

• Roman writers were heavily influenced by Greek traditions

• Greek ideas lay behind Roman philosophies

• Roman philosophy- Stoicism- which emphasized that people should learn to accept the will of the gods and remained detached from pleasure and pain was based on Greek Ideas

Roman Religion

Syncretism played a key part in aspects of Roman culture, including religion

• Frequently fused Latin deities with the Greek Patheon of gods

• Roman homes had an altar for the local divinities

• Families also went to temples and state celebrations carried out under the auspices of the chief priest, or pontifex maximus

• Romans required everyone to practice the state religion

• They tolerated the practice of additional religions as well

• Polytheistic

• Some priestesses grew wealthy and influential in the city

• Worship the emperor

Jews

• added the Jewish deity to their pantheon, they were not willing to give any deity exclusive worship

• conflicts between Jews and Romans resulted in three Jewish rebellions

• Resulted in the persecution of the Jews, caused Jews to flee, continuing the diaspora begun in earlier centuries

• Jews to become scapegoats and objects of prejudice, a situation that would be repeated centuries later in history

Christianity

• Followers of Jesus spread his teachings throughout the Roman world.

• Most popular among the urban poor, slaves, and women throughout the empire

• Appealed to people hungry for answers about the harshness of an afterlife

• Peter eventually came to Rome and is today regarded by the Roman Catholic Church

• Paul converted from Jewish to Christian

• Traits of early Christianity were a focus on living simple lives isolated from society

• Monasteries- buildings or collections of buildings where people devote their lives to the practice of a religion

• Martyrdom- a willingness to die rather than give up one’s beliefs

• Christians refused to respect the deities of the official state religion and thousands were imprisoned, tortured, and killed

• Despite persecution, Christianity grew stronger

• Christian religion became the official religion of the empire after Constantine

• Appearance of written accounts about the development of the religion

• Brought religion through Silk Road

Technology

• lacked sophisticated navigational equipment

• Major advancement: stirrups, provided greater stability for riders

• Silks and spices and gold were prized by the upper class of the Roman Empire

• China grew wealthy from trade with Rome

The decline of Empire

• began a slow, uneven decline after the 3rd century

• directly related to the empire’s expansion. The Silk Road introduced devastating epidemics

• Rome experienced a marked decline in population caused by plagues of smallpox and measles

• With population decline came a decline in trade, which caused fewer taxes, which ultimately led to roads not being repaired and armies not being paid regularly. This led to unsafe environments, which continued the downward spiral of the empire’s wealth and power

• Environmental Problems- increasing demand for natural resources (lumber) led to soil erosion

• Turmoil from so much movement proved too widespread for Roman soldiers to handle

• The remains of the empire were governed from Constantinople

Legacies of the Romans

• The empire divided into two parts under Diocletian

• The eastern portion flourished for many more centuries. Only the western portion continued to decline

• Inheritance from Romans: the United States is a system if a representative government with a Senate and House of Representatives as provided for by the U.S Constitution

• Checks on the legislators provided by the judiciary and independent courts abiding by the rule of law, can also be traced to the Romans

• Architectural features known as the dome and paved roads are contributions of the Romans (columns, temples, and amphitheaters)

• Large urban sewers as well as under-floor heating in urban homes

• Roman armies were efficient and organized, and they have served as models for militaries to modern times

• Solid style built for permanence

• Literature- philosophers from classical Rome are still read today

• Roman mythology can be seen in literature, movies, and advertising

• the Latin language provided the basis for the family of the European languages called the Romance languages