Psychology Chapter 7

Chapter 7: Thinking and Intelligence in OpenStax Psychology explores the processes involved in thinking, problem-solving, decision-making, and the various aspects of intelligence. It looks into how individuals form concepts, solve problems, make decisions, and how intelligence is measured and understood. Here’s a detailed summary of each section of the chapter:

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### 7.1 What is Cognition?

Cognition refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating. It involves the processes of gathering information, organizing, storing, and using it. Cognition allows us to make sense of the world around us.

- Concepts:

- Definition: Categories or groupings of linguistic information, images, ideas, or memories.

- Natural Concepts: Created through experiences, such as understanding "snow" from living in a place with snowfall.

- Artificial Concepts: Defined by a specific set of characteristics, like geometric shapes (e.g., a square is defined by having four equal sides).

- Prototypes: The best example or representation of a concept. For example, when thinking of a bird, many people might visualize a robin rather than a penguin.

- Schema:

- Role of Schemas: Schemas help organize information, guide expectations, and influence behavior. They are mental structures that include categories of knowledge.

- Role Schema: Assumptions about how individuals in certain roles will behave (e.g., a firefighter).

- Event Schema (Cognitive Script): A set of behaviors that can feel like a routine (e.g., how to behave in a restaurant).

### 7.2 Problem-Solving

Problem-solving involves finding solutions to difficult or complex issues. There are different strategies that people use to solve problems, some more effective than others.

- Problem-Solving Strategies:

- Trial and Error: Trying different solutions until a problem is solved.

- Algorithm: A step-by-step problem-solving formula that provides a specific solution. While effective, algorithms can be time-consuming.

- Heuristic: A general problem-solving framework that provides shortcuts, such as the "rule of thumb." Heuristics are quicker than algorithms but can lead to errors.

- Working Backwards: Solving a problem by focusing on the end result and working in reverse order.

- Breaking Down: Dividing a complex problem into smaller, more manageable parts.

- Common Obstacles in Problem-Solving:

- Mental Set: A tendency to approach problems in a certain way because it has worked in the past, which can make it difficult to think of new solutions.

- Functional Fixedness: A type of mental set where a person is unable to perceive an object being used for something other than its intended purpose.

- Confirmation Bias: The tendency to focus on information that confirms existing beliefs and ignore or dismiss contradictory evidence.

### 7.3 Thinking and Intelligence

This section explores how thinking is related to intelligence, emphasizing the measurement and various theories of intelligence.

- Theories of Intelligence:

- Spearman’s g: Charles Spearman suggested a general intelligence (g) factor that influences performance on various cognitive tasks.

- Cattell’s Theory: Raymond Cattell proposed two types of intelligence:

- Fluid Intelligence: The ability to see complex relationships and solve problems (e.g., reasoning skills).

- Crystallized Intelligence: Acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it (e.g., vocabulary, facts).

- Triarchic Theory of Intelligence (Robert Sternberg):

- Analytical Intelligence: Problem-solving abilities and academic proficiency.

- Creative Intelligence: Ability to create, design, invent, and think outside the box.

- Practical Intelligence: Street smarts and common sense; the ability to apply knowledge to real-world situations.

- Multiple Intelligences (Howard Gardner): Suggests there are eight different intelligences, such as linguistic, logical-mathematical, spatial, musical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligence.

- Emotional Intelligence:

- Definition: The ability to understand and manage your own emotions, as well as those of others.

- Importance: High emotional intelligence can help in navigating social situations, managing conflicts, and achieving better interpersonal relationships.

### 7.4 Measuring Intelligence

This section focuses on how intelligence is assessed and the factors that impact these measurements.

- History of Intelligence Testing:

- Alfred Binet: Developed the first intelligence test to identify children needing special help in school. His test led to the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale.

- David Wechsler: Created the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS), which assesses various aspects of intelligence, including verbal comprehension, perceptual reasoning, working memory, and processing speed.

- IQ (Intelligence Quotient):

- Calculation: IQ was initially calculated by dividing a person’s mental age by their chronological age and multiplying by 100. Today, IQ scores are based on a standardized scale where the average score is set at 100.

- Standardization and Norming:

- Standardization: Ensures the test is administered and scored consistently.

- Norming: Involves establishing norms, or average scores, to compare individual performance to that of a larger group.

- Bell Curve: The distribution of IQ scores typically follows a normal distribution, forming a bell-shaped curve, with most people scoring near the average and fewer scoring at the extremes.

### 7.5 The Source of Intelligence

This section explores the influences on intelligence, including genetics, environment, and other factors.

- Nature vs. Nurture Debate:

- Intelligence is influenced by both genetic factors (heredity) and environmental factors (upbringing, education, culture).

- Twin Studies: Studies with identical and fraternal twins have shown that genetics play a significant role in intelligence, but environment also has a considerable impact.

- Environmental Influences:

- Socioeconomic Status (SES): Children from higher SES backgrounds often have access to better educational resources, contributing to differences in IQ scores.

- Educational Opportunities: Access to stimulating learning environments and quality schooling can boost intelligence.

- Prenatal and Early Life Experiences: Nutrition, maternal health, and early cognitive stimulation can influence a child’s cognitive development.

### 7.6 The Bell Curve Controversy

This section addresses debates over intelligence testing and its social implications, specifically around racial, cultural, and class differences.

- Cultural Bias in Testing: Some argue that intelligence tests can be biased toward the cultural experiences and knowledge of certain groups, affecting how different populations perform on these tests.

- The Bell Curve Book: The controversial book argued for genetic differences in intelligence among racial groups, which sparked debates about the interpretation and implications of intelligence testing.

- Stereotype Threat: The fear of confirming negative stereotypes about one’s group can impact test performance, contributing to group differences in test scores.

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### Key Takeaways:

- Thinking and cognition involve the processes of organizing and using information.

- Problem-solving and decision-making are influenced by heuristics, biases, and cognitive schemas.

- Intelligence is a complex trait influenced by both genetic and environmental factors, with various theories attempting to explain its nature.

- Intelligence testing has a long history, and the measurement of intelligence is a subject of ongoing debate and research.

This chapter provides a foundation for understanding how we think, solve problems, make decisions, and how intelligence is conceptualized and assessed in psychology.
What is intelligence

Charles Spearman

-believed intelligence consisted of one general factor, called g

Raymond Cattel

Robert Steburg theory identifies three types of intelligence: practical, creative and analytical

Howard Gardner: proposed that each person possesses at least 8 intelligences

1. Linguistic

2. Logical math

3. musical

4. bodily kinesthet5ic

5. spatial

6. interpersonal

7. intrapersonal

8. naturalist

Emotional Intelligence

Creativity- the ability to generate, create, or discover new ideas, solutions, and possibilities.

Creative people usually

-Have intense knowledge for something

-work on it for years

-look at novel solutions

-seek out the advice and help of other experts

-take risks

Divergent thinking - “thinking outside of the box”

Convergent thinking-

Measuring Intelligence

Alfred Binet- Early 1900s - developed an intelligence test to use on children to see who might have trouble in school

Louis Terman (a Stanford psychologist) standardizing Binet’s idea.

Norming: giving a test to a large population and comparing it to other groups.

Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale

David Wechsler’s definition “the global capacity of a person to act purposefully to think rationally, and to deal effectively with his environment.

Flynn Effect

After years of use within schools and communities, periodic recalibration of WAIS lead to an observation known as the Flynn effect.

-Each generation has a higher IQ than the last

The Bell Curve

-this graph demonstrates a representative sample distribution of a trait in the human population

The average IQ score is 100

-Standard deviations-describe how data are dispersed

-The average IQ score is 100.

Is Intelligence Nature or Nurture?

-Nature perspective- intelligence is inherited from a person’s parents.

-The heritability of intelligence is often researched using twin studies.

0Nurture perspective- intelligence is shaped by a child’s developmental

-researchers today would day both.

Genetic makeup- is a fixed quantity.

Learning disabilities - are cognitive disorders that affect different areas of cognition particularly language or reading.

-specific neurological impairments, not an intellectual/developmental problem

-exhibit comorbidity with other disorders.

Dysgraphia - affects handwriting

Dyslexia- affects reading