أمتحان الشهر الثاني لغة مسائي

The Study of Language

• Author: George Yule

Page 2: The Origins of Language

• Speculation about the beginnings of language:

  • Early humans (males and females) might have used musical notes and rhythm to express love before developing articulate language (Darwin, 1871).

  • Darwin suggests that musical ability predates language, an insight that challenges typical perceptions of prehistoric humans.

  • Despite this speculation, there is no direct evidence on how language originated.

  • Production of sounds appears to be traced back to an ancient part of the brain shared with vertebrates.

  • Spoken language likely developed between 100,000 and 50,000 years ago, well before written language, which appeared about 5,000 years ago.

  • Absence of artifacts or physical evidence from earlier periods means that speculations about the origins continue.[27]

Page 3: The Divine Source

• Biblical Traditions:

  • Genesis describes God creating Adam and assigning names to creatures.

  • Hindu traditions ascribe the origin of language to Sarasvati, the goddess of knowledge.

  • Many religions believe in a divine source for language.

  • Early experiments aimed to rediscover this original divine language have yielded conflicting results.

• Historical Experiment:

  • Herodotus recounts Egyptian Pharaoh Psammetichus's experiment with isolated infants, who spoke the Phrygian word "bekos" (meaning "bread").

  • The conclusion drawn was that Phrygian must be the original language, despite other explanations for the children's utterances.

Page 4: Critique of Divine Experiments

• King James IV's experiment around 1500 suggested children spoke Hebrew after isolation.

• Evidence from other isolation cases (like Victor or Genie) shows that children without exposure to language fail to develop any.

• This suggests that spontaneous language development from silence isn’t feasible.

• Biblical account of Babel raises questions about reconstructing any original language.

Page 5: The Natural Sound Source

• The theory proposes that early humans associated natural sounds with their meanings.

  • Human auditory capabilities exist in utero, culminating in sound recognition abilities.

• Jespersen's "bow-wow" theory suggests early humans imitated these sounds to create primitive words.

Page 6: The "Bow-Wow" Theory

• Primitive words linked to imitations of sounds from the environment (Caw-Caw, Coo-Coo).

• Modern examples: words like splash, bang, rattle, buzz.

• Onomatopoeia demonstrates the vocalization derived from imitative sounds.

• This theory struggles to explain how abstract concepts could have been named.

Page 7: The "Pooh-Poo" Theory

• Proposed that speech evolved from instinctive emotional sounds (e.g., Ouch!).

• Criticism: These sounds are generally produced on inhalation, contrasting with normal speech production which occurs during exhalation.

Page 8: The Social Interaction Source

• Jespersen's "yo-he-ho" theory suggests language arose from sounds made during communal physical effort.

• Communication within groups would be necessary for coordination.

• While social interactions require language, it does not clarify the origins of sound production.

Page 9: The Physical Adaptation Source

• Emphasizes anatomical features (like an upright posture) that evolved to support speech production.

• Comparative anatomy between humans and primates highlights significant skull and vocal tract differences.

Page 10: The Connection of Teeth and Lips to Speech

• Human teeth are structured differently to facilitate speech sounds.

  • Upright teeth are better for producing sounds like f and v.

• Human lips possess intricate muscles for creating versatile sounds( p, b, m).

Page 11: The Role of the Larynx and Pharynx

• Unique positioning of human larynx enhances vocal capabilities, creating a resonating pharynx.

• This phylogenetic change resulted in increased vocal range, despite the choking risk it introduces.

Page 12: The Tool-Making Source

• Physical adaptations for speech may correspond with manual skills, suggesting gestures precursored language.

• Tool-making shows evidence of cognitive development linked with speech.

Page 13: The Human Brain and Language

• The brain’s lateralization connects functions of speech and tool-making.

• Complex vocalization involves specific brain regions closely related to motor functions, indicating evolutionary connections between speech and tool use.

Page 14: The Genetic Source of Language

• Infants exhibit rapid developmental changes like brain growth and larynx descent, crucial for language acquisition.

• Some propose innate language capacity, possibly linked to a genetic mutation unique to humans.

Page 15: Phonetics

• Phonetics establishes a framework for analyzing speech sounds.

  • The International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA).

  • Different branches of phonetics: articulatory, acoustic, and auditory.

Page 16: Voiced and Voiceless Sounds

• Distinction based on vocal cord positioning:

  • Voiceless: vocal folds apart, unimpeded airflow.

  • Voiced: vocal folds together, causing vibration.

• Examples demonstrating the difference with practical exercises.

Page 17: Place of Articulation

• Consonant sounds are categorized by their places of articulation within the oral cavity.

  • Visual representation via anatomical diagrams can clarify this concept.

Page 19: Familiar and Unfamiliar Consonant Symbols

• Common sounds and their phonetic symbols explained with practical examples.

• Voiced and voiceless sounds identified and contrasted.

Page 21: Manner of Articulation

• Details on how sounds are produced:

  • Stops: Airflow temporarily blocked.

  • Fricatives: Airflow nearly blocked creating friction.

  • Affricates: Combines stops and fricatives for complex sounds.

• Discusses nasals and liquids and their articulation.

Page 23: Glottal Stops and Flaps

• Explores glottal stops and flaps common in casual speech.

• These sounds often illustrate variations in pronunciation within English, specifically American dialects.

Page 27: Vowel Sounds

• Vowel production differs from consonants; they require a more open vocal tract.

• Classification by tongue position helps define vowel sounds.

Page 30: Diphthongs

• Combination of vowel sounds that shift position during articulation.

• Practical examples illustrate common diphthongs.

Page 31: Individual Variation in Vowel Sounds

• Discusses how vowel pronunciation varies between different English accents.

• Notes how certain vowel sounds can be produced more fluidly in everyday speech.

Page 32: Phonetic Individual Variation

• Individual voice differences recognized, while underlying sound types allow comprehension in unfamiliar speech.