AP WORLD HISTORY MIDYEAR

Absolutism in the West 

I. Absolutism in France - Context 

A. By the late 1600’s, Spain replaced France as the most powerful European empire 1. French kings slowly acquired more power and eroded (slowly took away) the power of the nobility and a large Calvinist sect, known as Huguenots 

B. The French army acquired a large amount of power during this period as well C. Europe was divided because of different religious loyalties 

D. 16^th c. France: mostly Catholic but with large Huguenot (Protestant) population E. St. Bartholomew’s Day massacre (1572): French government attempted to rid all protestants from the population 

II. Louis XIV - The Sun King (R. 1661-1715) 

A. Acquired the throne as a child in 1643. Official rule begins 1661 

1. Profoundly affected by the Fronde (civil war in France from 1648-1653) 2. Took the sun as the symbol of his power, and increased royal authority 3. Through his bishop, he was able to gain unquestioned power supported by a servant of God 

B. Louis had numerous achievements as the ruler of France 

III. Effects of Louis XIV’s Rules 

A. Policy/Actions Enacted by Louis XIV 

1. Revoked the Edict of Nantes 

2. No practice of Protestantism allowed (strict punishment for those who did) 

3. Strict oversight of nobles at Versailles 

4. Building of Versailles 

B. Effect on France 

1. Productive workforce will migrate out 

2. Increased violence between Huguenots and Catholics 

3. Encouraged loyalty from the nobles 

4. Cultural center of Europe develops (Versailles=symbol of French power) 5. New cultural customs emerge from Versailles (ballet, fashion, language

development 

IV. Absolutism in Russia 

A. Between 1462 and 1795, Russia was governed by a series of absolute rulers 1. These rulers were able to drive out the Mongols, who had invaded Russia, and make Russia a significantly more powerful state. 

B. This run of absolutism began with Ivan the Great in 1462. 

V. Peter The Great R. 1682-1725 

A. Was czar and absolute ruler of Russia from 1682 to 1725. 

1. Sought to modernize Russia, believed it would occur fastest if the country “westernized” 

2. Used his army to expand Russia’s power and extend the country eastward 3. Failed to acquire a warm-water port ( a port that could trade in the winter) VI. Parliamentarism 

A. Parliamentarism ruler governs with a lawmaking body appointed by the aristocracy or elected by some or all of the people 

VII. England 

A. In England, rulers had shared power with Parliament since the 1200’s 1. Henry VIII and Elizabeth I both ruled alongside a strong Parliament in the 1500’s 

B. Why did Parliament have power? 

1. Parliament held power of the purse or control of the money in the country 2. This differs from the estates general 

Absolutism in the East 

I. The Ottoman Empire 

A. Got power and European recognition in 1453 by defeating the Byzantines and conquering Constantinople 

B. Effects of Constantinople falling on Europe: 

1. Allowed Ottoman Empire to expand into Europe 

2. Forced Europeans to find new routes to Asia 

II. How the Ottomans built an empire: 

A. Gaining crucial points of Constantinople 

1. Mehmet II (Cottoman Turk) conquered it in 1453 and renamed it Istanbul 2. Janissaries (elite army) that were loyal to Sultan 

a) Army was fed well 

b) Had health care provided by the government 

3. Jobs based on merits, a radical notion compared to European life 

4. Foreigners respected such structure and loyalty 

III. Why was it an attractive empire to live under? 

A. Religious tolerance enforced 

1. Located one major routes and had control of the Bosporus Strait

2. Divshrime/Janissary system offered opportunities for social mobility 

a) The Devshirme System: Policy that allowed Ottoman government 

officials to take young Christian boys and train them to be a part of 

the Janissary 

b) Policy seems cruel but it actually offered job opportunities and 

promoted religion tolerance 

c) Many boys covered to Islam 

B. Get protected by strong army by being a “member” 

C. Women had many freedoms under Ottoman rule 

1. Had domestic duties but could also run businesses 

2. Had the final say when it comes to running the house 

3. Women in imperial families were part of harems and had to be escorted anywhere by men/eunuchs 

a) Harems were not prostitution houses and women were not sex 

slaves 

IV. Suleiman The Significant (R. 1520-1566) 

A. Led the Ottman Golden Age 

1. Expanded the empire east to Mesopotamia and west to Hungary 

2. Used modernized military and diplomatic skills 

V. How did Suleiman The Significant contribute to the Ottoman ociety and the sucess of Islam in this reigon? 

A. Was a brilliant general 

1. Sent shock waves through Europeans 

2. (1529 war in Vienna, Australia) Should have won but lost due to the army being too tired and low on supplies 

3. Europe came very close to falling under complete muslim rule 

VI. Result of the Siege of Vienna 

A. Even though they had better weapons (from the Chinese) and attack positions, they still lost 

VII. Suleiman’s Achievements 

A. Was able to increase his own power and calm absolute power by: 

1. Modernizing the army 

a) Allowing him to expand into new territories 

2. Expanding the empire 

3. Establishing a huge bureaucracy 

4. Improving the justice system 

5. Re-organizing the society into four social classes 

The Scientific Revolution 

I. Historical Context

A. After the renaissance, more people questioned the world and moved away from religion. 

1. The Scientific Revolution was a period in which people began to use science to understand the world and create innovation 

II. Galileo Galilei 

A. Spent time hiding his findings from the catholic church 

1. Was subjected to an inquisition 

B. Responsible for: 

1. Creating the first telescope 

2. Improving the theory of falling objects 

3. Attempted to establish the theory on the laws of motion 

4. Worked on the heliocentric theory 

III. Heliocentric Model 

A. Nicolaus Copernicus 

1. Claimed that the geocentric model of the universe (earth-centered model of the universe) was incorrect and that the heliocentric model 

(sun-centered model of the universe) is the correct model 

2. Support for the heliocentric model 

a) Tycho Brahe (1546-1601) 

(1) Built observatory and collected data 

b) Johannes Kepler (1571-1630) 

(1) Calculations supported the model 

(2) Discovered that planets moved in elliptical orbits 

c) Galileo Galilei 

(1) Confirmed Copernicus’ theory through telescopic 

observations 

(2) Stated that universe is infinite 

(3) Discovered moon craters and sunspots that contradicted 

views of “heavenly bodies” 

d) Isaac Newton (1642-1727) 

(1) Integrated astronomy of Copernicus and Kepler with the 

physics of Galileo 

(2) Formulated mathematical principles to explain motion 

(a) Nature follows laws based on math 

(b) Single force (gravity) keeps planet in orbit 

(3) Core of his theory was the universal law of gravitation 

e) Sir Issac Newton 

(1) Through his experimentation, he constructed: 

(a) Laws of Gravity 

(b) Improved Laws of Motion

(c) Explained Laws of Falling Objects 

(d) Helped invented system of calculus 

f) Other places such as China and Europe also agreed with the model 

IV. Reactions 

A. They were hesitant to share their work because the Church would accuse you of heresy 

1. Convicted Galilieo of heresy and forced him to recant his ideas 

V. Impact of The Scientific Revolution 

A. People began to believe in natural laws instead of religion 

B. Lead to birth of Scientific Method, a combination of Decartes and Bacon’s idea VI. The Scientific Method 

A. Bacon urged people to use inductive reasoning to draw conclusions 

B. Descartes urged people to use deductive reasoning to reason out basic truths VII. Achievements of the Revolution 

A. Medicine and human body 

B. Andrea Vesalius: 

1. Created a textbook on anatomy 

2. Corrected errors of the ancient Greek authority Galen 

3. Improved the work of Persian physician Avicenna 

a) Discoveries in Chemistry: 

(1) Robert Boyle: 

(a) Argues that matter is made of many different 

particles 

(b) Boyle’s law reveals interactions of volume, 

temperature, and gas pressure 

b) Changes in Botany/Zoology 

(1) Carl Linnaeus developed a system of taxonomy (way to 

classify organisms) 

The English Civil War and The Glorious Revolution I. The Stuart Monarchy 

A. James I, 1603-1625 

1. Ruler that followed after Elizabeth I 

2. Made extensive use out of joint stock company system 

a) Invested overseas exploration in exchange for large profits 

3. Crafted new version of bible, most common used today 

4. Believed in divine right (1st to use such concept) 

B. Charles I, 1625-1649 

C. Charles II, 1660-1685 

D. James II, 1685-1688 

E. William III, 1689-1702

F. Mary, 1689-1694 

II. The Stuarts and England 

A. James I and Charles I dissolved Parliament and collected taxes on their own for wars 

1. Normally kings ask Parliament for funding 

2. James disputed with Puritans (Protestant Sect) 

3. Charles imprisoned enemies without trial 

4. Both claimed to have divine right to rule 

III. Charles circumvents Parliament 

A. Levies a medieval tax for coastal cities for defense (AKA ship money) 1. Also applied them to inland counties as well 

B. This got him around the need to call Parliament into session and collect taxes for wars 

1. He had dismissed them at the start of his rule (AKA the eleven years of tyranny) 

2. Didn’t get enough money and thus needed Parliament’s permission to extend tax collection to continue a war with Spain 

IV. The Petition of Rights, 1628 

A. Charles arrested dissenters of his taxes indefinitely and without cause 1. Landed himself in major issues and turned to Parliament for money 

B. Charles I agreed to: 

1. No imprisonment without due cause 

2. No taxation without Parliament’s consent 

3. No martial law during peacetime 

V. Causes of the English Civil War 

A. Charles ruled peacefully for a large period of time, even with the dismissal of Parliament. His administration of Ireland and Scotland created issues that were difficult to for him to deal with: 

1. Tried to impose his will in Ireland and Scotland towards becoming more Catholic 

2. His moves in Scotland led to rebellions 

a) Army was far from trained and lost two wars to the Scots 

(1) Called Parliament for funding but got rejected 

b) Ireland revolted against Britain 

(1) Protestants tried to slowly settle Catholic Ireland 

c) Charles chose to ignore parliament and raise army of his own 

(1) Triggered the first English Civil War between Royalists and 

Parliamentarians 

VI. English Civil War (1642-1649) 

A. Royalists (Cavaliers)

1. House of Lords 

2. Supported Charles I 

3. Resided mostly in the Western and Northern parts of England 

4. Was the Aristocracy 

5. Large landowners meaning their advantage was control over large portions of land 

6. Church officials supported this cause 

7. More rural 

B. Parliamentarians (Roundheads) 

1. House of commons 

2. Supported the removal of Charles I 

3. Resided mostly in the Eastern and Southern parts of England 

4. Were Puritans for the most part 

5. Composed merchants and townspeople 

6. Were more urban 

VII. Results 

A. After a series of pitched battles and the Scots moving from side to side (Supported Parliamentarians first then Royalists), Charles I was captured in 1648 and 

executed. 

B. The Glorious Revolution 1688 

1. James II’s attempts to re-install an autocratic monarchy was met with 

opposition from Parliament. 

a) Parliament invited Willian II of the Netherlands to rule with their 

support 

(1) William arrived with 15,000 troops and marched to 

London. James II flees to France 

(a) This is known as the Glorious Revolution, the 

Bloodless Revolution against the rule of James II 

VIII. The Next Phase 

A. Oliver Cromwell, a leader of the Parliament army, became the lord protector of England (fancy title for absolute ruler). 

1. Would have Charles I executed (generates many questions of its own) 

2. Makes major changes (was a Puritan) such as the removal of carnival or any form of merrymaking. 

3. Leads to a mass exodus out of the country (more colonization!) 

IX. Return of the Monarchy 

A. Charles II would return in 1660 to England (after fleeing to France) and would restore the monarchy. 

1. James II would create a new set of issues 

a) Was Catholic

b) English suspected he was intent on starting a Catholic dynasty and 

returning to the monarchic rule connected the Charles I 

2. William II and his wife Mary (James II’s Daughter) rule together under the condition that they agree to the English Bills of Rights. 

X. The English Civil War, A mini summary 

A. Charles I claimed absolute rule in Britain 

B. Some of the British citizens, having established a limited monarchy, chose to revolt against Charles I. 

C. Charles I had supporters who defended him, leading to the English Civil War. D. Charles I and his cavaliers were defeated, ending the major portion of the war. Enlightenment (Thinkers and Actions) 

I. How did the English Civil War and Glorious Revolution address the question of the role of government? 

A. Shifted the government from an absolute monarchy to a limited monarchy B. Established a bill of rights (unheard of during this period in europe) 

C. Significantly increased the power of the middle class or bourgeoisie and Parliament 

II. Introduction to the Enlightenment 

A. The Enlightenment was also considered the Age of Reason 

1. Enlightenment defined → A philosophical school of thought that stresses reason over blind faith in obedience 

B. Scholars believed reason could be used to improve government and society. C. Reason was used to discover natural laws 

1. Natural laws → laws that govern human nature 

III. Competing ideals as a result of the scientific revolution and the enlightenment A. Reason and Logic 

1. Rationalism (reason based knowledge) 

2. Empiricism (data based knowledge) 

3. Tolerance 

4. Skepticism towards aspects of the world and previously accepted 

knowledge 

5. Deism 

B. Tradition and Superstition 

1. Nostalgia-based or conservatism (keep it the way it has been) 

2. Organized religions 

3. Irrationalism 

4. heavily based on emotion 

IV. Foundations of the Enlightenment 

A. State of Nature: is the hypothetical conditions of what the lives of people might have been like before societies came into existence

B. Civilized Society: is well organized and developed, and has accepted laws that govern behavior 

V. Hobbes v. Locke 

A. Hobbes (Witnessed to the execution of Charles I and fled to France) 

1. Mathematician influenced by the Scientific Revolution 

a) Tried to apply scientific principles to social theory. 

2. Had a pessimistic view of human behavior in a state of nature 

3. Thus believing in order for a civilized society to function, people had to sacrifice their individual rights for the overall wellbeing of the general 

population 

B. Locke (Witnessed the (relatively) bloodless Glorious Revolution) 

1. Also influenced by the Scientific Revolution 

a) Sought to apply scientific principles to social theory 

2. Was optimistic and believed that man had natural rights 

a) Natural Rights → rights one is born with and cannot change 

3. Believed people formed governments to protect their natural rights 

VI. The concept of The Social Contract 

A. Definition: An agreement among the members of a civilized society or between the governed and the government defining and limiting the rights and duties of each 

VII. What does Hobbes’ idea mean for government? 

A. Hobbes believed that only a powerful government could ensure order for a society and therefore the social contract is meant to provide ORDER. 

1. Therefore, he believed the best form of government was an absolute 

monarchy. 

VIII. What did Locke’s ideas mean for the government? 

A. Locke believed that citizens had a right to question their government and should revolt if it did not meet their needs. Social contracts were made to PROTECT THE RIGHTS OF CITIZENS. 

1. Therefore, he supported a government with limited power. 

IX. Natural Rights 

A. Locked believed that human nature is governed by natural laws and that that reason is what allows people to know what is truly good for them. He also believed that reason is what allows people to know what is truly good for them. B. To obey natural laws, people need to have and exercise natural rights 

1. Right to life, liberty, and property. 

2. Government must protect these rights and if they do not do so, the citizens have a right to remove it. 

X. Things to consider... 

A. The social contract and other enlightenment theories were meant to create

societies that functioned and served everyone within them. 

1. Many theories posited that we all enter into social contracts to achieve equality within a society whether it is through equal rights (natural rights) or through equality under the law. 

The Enlightenment Pt. 2 (More theories and despotism) I. Central theory of importance 

A. Natural Rights → rights one is born with and cannot change. 

1. Used to shape various Bills of Rights 

2. Think declaration of rights of man and citizen in france and the US 

constitution 

B. The basis for the first discussions around human rights (happens in France first) C. Separation of powers 

1. Powers divided among various groups in government 

D. Checks and balances 

1. The way to ensure separation of powers, each group can check the power of the other to preserve balance 

II. Baron De Montesquieu 

A. Three types of government: 

1. Monarchy 

2. Despotism 

3. Republic 

B. Republican governments (with elections) were best 

C. Power must be shared within governments: 

1. Separation of powers prevented despotism 

2. Checks and balances prevented despotism 

III. Separation of Power 

A. Legislative Branch 

1. Congress makes the law 

B. Executive Branch 

1. President enforces the law 

C. Judicial Branch 

1. Supreme Court interprets the law 

IV. Jean Jacques Rousseau 

A. Wrote “The Social Contract” 

1. People would be most free under a direct democracy 

2. The people, NOT the ruler get to decide what laws they live under 

3. Individuals did this by entering a social contract with each other NOT their ruler 

V. The Social Contract 

A. Posited the idea that man was in his best form in a state of nature

1. Free of outside structures (religion, politics) 

2. People were capable of cooperation because of shared need to survive and thrive 

3. Social Contract was with each person, not with their government is 

important 

4. Allows for shared investment and removal of power 

structures…...ideally… 

The Enlightenment Pt. 3 (Women and Economics) I. Salons and the Enlightenment 

A. Salon: the gathering of people held to educate and entertainment the participants through conversation with one another 

B. The Salonnieres 

1. Madame Geoffrin (1699-1777) 

2. Mademoiselle Julie De Lespinasse (1732-1776) 

3. Madame Suzanne Necker (1739-1794) 

II. Female Philosophes 

A. Emilie Du Châtelet (French Noblewomen, 1706-1749) 

1. Wrote extensively about the mathematics and Physics of Gottfried 

Wilhelm Von Leibniz and Issac Newton 

2. The lover, Voltaire, learned much of his science from her 

B. Mary Wollstonecraft (1759-1791) 

1. Enlightenment novelist and essayist 

2. Most famous for Vindication of the Rights of Women 

3. Argued that women were the intellectual equal to men and only appeared to be inferior due to a lack of education 

a) Her Essential Point: 

(1) If the philosophes truly believed that reason should drive 

society, then they must also embrace the idea of gender 

equality. To deny gender equality is irrational 

III. The “Enlightened” attitude toward women 

A. Women ARE rational 

B. But, none of the male thinkers believed in female emancipation 

C. As a result, women were denied participation in government until the 20th century 

1. Rousseau’s take on women: 

a) The public sphere is for men only 

b) A woman's place is the home 

IV. Economics in the time of The Enlightenment 

A. European nation-states were steeped in imperialism as they all raced to capture colonies and generate as much profit as possible.

B. This is all based on the economic system of mercantilism where it was necessary to extract as much raw material as they could from a colony and used it to create manufactured goods to sell in another area. 

V. Enlightenment Economists 

A. Economic Theory was greatly shaped by: 

1. David Hume (1711-1776) 

a) Hume’s Theories- Free Trade 

(1) Countries need to remove as many barriers to trade as 

possible to be able to increase profit 

(2) It also increases the stock of labor in a country (since they 

would not need to be used to make the goods they would 

trade for) which could be sued for infrastructure projects 

(3) Importing should be encouraged since luxury items make 

people happier 

b) Hume’s Theories #2- Reduction of reliance on exports 

(1) Hume argued that it was important to avoid relying heavily 

on exports to maintain balance of trade 

(2) The more a country exports, the more gold it brings in 

(a) The more gold it brings in, the more that is 

available which leads to inflation of prices and 

deflation of currency 

(b) Known as the Monetarist Quantity Theory of 

Money 

(3) Balance of Trade would come naturally if a country 

chooses to import as much as it is exporting since there will 

be a constant in and out flow of currency 

c) Hume’s Theory #3- Avoidance of war 

(1) Hume argued that warfare disrupts commerce and is more 

likely to inhibit economic progress than it was to improve it 

(2) Though territorial acquisition brought access to more 

resources and material, it more often than bred more 

spending to conquer and maintain control of territory 

2. Adam Smith (1723-1790): Free market system 

a) The law of self-interest 

(1) States that every consumer operates for their own benefit 

(a) Consumers will make financial decisions based on 

what is good for them at the time 

(2) Because consumers will operate for the most part based on 

what they believe to be what’s best for them, it makes their 

behavior predictable

(3) These predictions help producers and other market forces 

make predictions about what will happen with certain 

goods in the future 

b) The law of competition 

(1) Competition is necessary for a market economy to function 

properly 

(2) States that companies or sellers will compete with one 

another to attract consumers and this competition helps 

determine the prices of goods 

(a) Therefore, the competition will drive prices lower, 

benefiting the consumer 

(b) Consumers therefore play an active role in 

determining the pricing of an item 

c) The law of supply and demand 

(1) The availability of an item helps determine the rarity of the 

item which determined how much someone would pay for 

it 

(a) Supply has to do with how much of an item exists 

(b) Demand has to do with how desirable a specific 

item is 

(2) Supply and demand were intertwined in determining the 

price of an item 

(a) High demand but low supply → increased price 

(b) Low demand but high supply → decreased price 

(c) Equal demand and equal supply→ fair price 

Enlightened Despots 

I. Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786) 

A. Succeeded his father, Frederick William I (the “Soldier King”) 

B. He saw himself as the “First Servant of the State” 

II. Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796) 

A. German Princess 

B. Sophie Friederike Auguste of Anhalt-Zerbst 

III. Catherine the Great: Reformer or Despot? 

A. 1767: Catherine summons the Legislative Commission 

B. 1768-1774:Russo-Turkish War 

C. 1771-1775: Pugachev Rebellion is suppressed 

D. 1772: First Partition of Poland 

E. 1785: Charter of Nobility 

F. 1793: Second Partition of Poland 

G. 1795: Third Partition of Poland

IV. Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-1790) 

A. His mother was Maria Theresa 

V. Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor 

A. 1772: First partition of Poland 

B. 1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to Austrian lands 

C. 1781: Declared the Toleration Patent 

D. 1781: Abolition of serfdom and feudal dues 

E. 1785: He failed to exchange the Austria 

1. Netherlands for Bavaria 

F. 1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the Russo-Turkish War, but little was gained G. 1795: Third partition of Poland 

VI. The Legacy of the Enlightenment? 

A. The democratic revolutions began in America in 1776 and continued in Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in Paris in the late 1780s, putting every Western government on the defensive 

B. Reform, democracy, and republicanism had been placed irrevocably on the Western agenda 

C. New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs, salons, fraternals, private academies, lending libraries, and professional/scientific organizations 

D. 19^c conservatives blamed it for the modern “egalitarian disease” (once reformers began to criticize established institutions, they didn’t know where and when to stop!) 

E. It established a materialistic tradition based on an ethical system derived solely from a naturalistic account of the human condition (the “Religion of Nature”) F. Theoretically endowed with full civil and legal rights, the individual had come into existence as a political and social force to be reckoned with 

VII. Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-1790) 

A. His mother was Maria Theresa 

VIII. The Characteristics of the Enlightenment 

A. Legal Reforms 

1. Justice, kindness, and charity, no torture or indiscriminant incarceration. 2. Due process of law. 

B. Constitutionalism 

1. Written constitutions listing citizens rights. 

C. Cosmopolitanism 

IX. 18 Politics 

A. Britain- Constitutional Monarchy 

B. France- Royal Absolutism 

C. Prussia, Habsburg Empire, Russia- “Enlightened Despotism” 

D. Ottoman Empire- Traditional Empire

Enlightenment and the American Revolution 

I. The evolution of English Rights 

A. 1215 → Magna Carta 

1. No taxation without representation 

2. Beginnings of due process 

3. Limitation of the king’s power 

B. 1689 → English Bill of Rights 

1. Established a constitutional and limited monarchy 

2. empowered the citizenry 

II. Government Systems 

A. Republicanism 

1. The ideology of governing where the leaders are elected representatives of the people. 

2. Citizens select reps and monarchies are non-existent for the most part B. Constitutional Monarchy 

1. An (unelected) king or queen whose power is “checked and balanced” by other people and/or branches of government 

2. voting is only for legislatures if allowed 

III. Why the move towards revolution? 

A. From 1607 to 1776, the British governed the American Colonies. 

1. Although the colonists considered themselves to be British subjects, they did not have votes in Parliament. 

2. They could not affect how England governed them 

IV. Examples of Taxation without Representation 

A. Sugar Act: Increased taxes on non-British goods shipped to the colonies B. Currency Act: Prohibited American colonies from issuing their own currency C. Stamp Act: Taxed newspapers, almanacs, pamphlets, broadsides, legal documents, dice, and playing cards. 

D. The Tea Act: Gave the British East India Company a monopoly on tea sales in the colonies 

V. The American response to Taxation 

A. Tar and Feathering of Tax Collectors 

B. Boston Tea Party (1773) 

C. Boycotts of British Goods 

VI. The British Response: The Coercive or Intolerable Acts (1774) 

A. Boston Port Act: Colonists couldn’t use the port 

B. Government Act: Gave the British Governor more power over the colonists C. New Quartering Act: British soldiers could be quartered in colonist’s homes and businesses 

D. Administration of Justice Act: Changed the location of local trials to other British

Colonies 

VII. Declaration of Independence (1776) 

VIII. A Tale of the Two Georges: 

A. George III: King of Great Britain and Ireland, Duke and prince-elector of Brunswick-Lüneburg in the Holy Roman Empire 

B. President George Washington: General in the Revolutionary Army, revered figure of freedom 

IX. Features of the Constitution: 

A. A strong central government that will protect property 

B. Representative government, not direct democracy 

1. Representatives tend to be elites 

2. Slavery is protected 

C. Women have no rights 

D. Only property owners can vote 

X. Was the American Revolution radical? 

A. Establishes a Republican government 

B. Bill of Rights that protects all citizens 

C. No aristocracy 

D. But… 

1. Only white, land-owning men could vote 

2. Power was still in the hands of the elite 

The Haitian Revolution 

I. Origins 

A. The colony of Haiti 

1. Haiti (along with what is now known as the Dominican Republic) was originally part of a Spanish colony called Hispaniola 

2. In 1697, when the Spanish mostly left for more profitable colonies the French took over Haitian part of Hispaniola and renamed it Saint 

Domingue 

3. The colony was well known for producing: 

a) Sugar 

b) Tobacco 

c) Coffee 

4. The French brought over many slaves from Africa to work on their 

profitable coffee and spice plantations 

a) By 1788, there were eight times as many slaves (nearly 500,000) 

as colonists 

II. Demographics 

A. The impact of demographics 

1. 32,000 White Settlers/French → wanted to keep their slaves and

plantations 

2. 28,000 Affranchis → to keep their slaves and be equal to the whites 

3. 500,000 Slaves → freedom 

B. Demand for equality? 

1. Freed black peoples go to France to plead with the Estates General 

a) Demanded social equality with the white settlers 

b) Did not ask for slavery to end nor did they equate themselves with 

the slaves even though they shared heritage in many cases 

c) Instances of colorism → prejudice or discrimination against 

individuals with a dark skin tone, typically among people of the 

same ethnic or racial group 

III. The Rebellion 

A. Toussaint L’Ouverture 

1. In 1791, the slaves led a rebellion against the slave-owners 

2. L’Ouverture transformed the slave rebellion into a full scale revolution 3. He was a military general and understood how to marshal the slave 

rebellions into a unified action 

B. Effects 

1. thousands of white plantation owners fled Haiti in fear 

2. In 1794, the slaves of Haiti were freed. 

3. Haiti remains a French colony 

IV. Closing of the revolution 

A. In 1802, Napoleon tries to re-institute slavery in Haiti and regain formal control. 1. Fails miserably due to a unified effort between freed black peoples and former slaves. 

2. L’Ouverture is given an audience with the Estates General and is 

subsequently arrested. 

a) He died while imprisoned in 1803 but the revolution is successful 

under Jean Jacques Dessalines. 

b) Haiti became independent in 1804 becoming a major example to 

other colonies… 

A Closer Look At Haiti 

I. What Happened After? 

A. Haiti, upon establishing its independence, claimed control of the entire island of Hispañola by 1822. 

1. Their neighbors, the people of the Dominican Republic, shared a similar heritage (Arawak and Taino tribes) but different influences. 

2. The Dominicans were controlled by the Spanish for extensive periods of time, therefore, they identified with the Spanish and leaned heavily into 

that culture (spoke Spanish)

3. The Haitians were controlled by the French for extensive periods of time, therefore, they identified with the French and spoke French 

II. Dominicans and Haitians 

A. Dominicans 

1. Spanish, viewed being white as being closer to their European heritage, moved into the Eastern part of the island during the Haitian Revolution 

2. Haitians, French roots, Creole, mostly Black people, held the western part of the island 

III. The difference in development 

A. Although both countries NEIGHBOR each other, their development is extremely uneven. 

B. When comparing the two countries: 

1. One has a strong tourism industry, the other does not. 

2. One has better living conditions, the other does not. 

3. One has greater economic growth and healthcare, the other does not 

IV. Why was there uneven development between the two countries? 

A. The French debt 

1. Crippled the Haitian economy for more than 100 years. 

2. Prevented the growth of a domestic industry in Haiti 

B. The Environment 

1. The Dominican Republic was located on the portion of the island that was least mountainous making it easier to plant cash-crops 

C. Foreign intervention 

1. The United States had a great impact on the development of both 

countries. 

2. Was reluctant to engage Haiti in diplomatic relations and created an 

exploitative relationship 

V. The United States 

A. The United States is deeply intertwined with the history of Haiti and the Dominican Republic and there are ways that the United States contributed to the current standing of Haiti. 

1. When Haiti had its revolution in 1804, there was a great fear that swept the Southern states about their own slaves leading a revolution similar to that of Haiti 

2. This fear led to a blocking out of the Revolution in the United States. A Black slave led rebellion that was successful in removing a White 

European power was deeply terrifying to Southern plantation owners. 

3. It also led to a freezing out of Haiti from major trade relations and 

diplomatic relations to ensure that the ideas of the Revolution never 

reached its shores.

VI. The Impact of American Intervention and Acknowledgement 

A. The United States refused to acknowledge the independence of Haiti until they ultimately acquired an unpayable debt to France to achieve true independence (one country helps the other, it helps to consider the Louisiana Purchase here) 

B. The United States refused to engage Haiti on terms that would be beneficial to both countries. Rather, it forced Haiti into unequal trade deals and forced it to move away from reliance on its own domestic system to reliance on foreign export. 

C. The United States severely limited the growth of Haiti when it occupied the country, allowing damaging dictators to gain power and ultimately prevent the growth of the country on its own. 

D. The reluctance to provide consistent aid to Haiti has led to the prolonged lack of economic growth and difficult conditions in Haiti 

E. The United States was not the only group involved in actions that can be considered racist, the Dominican Republic weaponized the systems imposed upon them as a way of being able to claim dominance over Haitians. 

1. The Dominicans used their standing in the Latin American social class system to lean into their whiteness and European bloodlines to claim 

power over Haitians. 

2. The Dominicans also leaned heavily on Haitian workers and took 

advantage of their difficult situation to ensure they had cheap labor to 

compete against White European/American owned plantations in the 

country. 

3. The Dominican government has taken actions to prevent the assimilation of Haitians into the country permanently → between massacres and 

constitution changes, there is a lever that can be used to prevent the 

Haitianization of the country. 

French Revolution: Reign of Terror 

I. Key Events (1793) 

A. January, Execution of Louis XVI 

B. April, Committee on Public Safety Created 

C. September, Reign of Terror Begins 

D. October, Execution of Marie Antoinette 

II. Constitution of 1791 

A. King Louis XVI attempted to flee and secure foreign help 

B. He was caught and forced to return to Paris 

C. He accepted the Constitution 

III. 1791 Declaration of Pillnitz 

A. Prussia and Austria pledge to declare war with France if Louis XVI is threatened IV. The French Republic 1792

A. Legislative Assembly calls for a National Convention to create a Republic B. Created a new government = a republic 

C. Wrote a democratic constitution 

D. Passed universal male suffrage = every man could vote 

E. (But none of this happened….too busy dealing with the wars) 

V. Why did the revolution turn even more violent? 

A. The Declaration of Pillnitz 

1. External Threat → War 

B. Foreign Threats! 

1. France was at war with Prussia, Austria, Great Britain, Holland, Spain, Portugal, Naples, and Sardinia! 

C. Nationalism 

1. The strong belief that the interests of a particular nation-state are of 

primary importance 

a) In 1793 able-bodied men were drafted into the armies of the 

revolution 

b) The French armies succeeded in defending their country by 1794 

VI. How did the revolution turn even more violent? 

1. Internal Threats 

a) Opposition to the National Convention was growing… 

b) Revolts against the government took place 

VII. Maximilien Robespierre 

A. Believed in universal equality among citizens, the freedom of the individual, and universal brotherhood 

B. In the early months of 1793, one leader, Maximilien Robespierre, slowly gained power. 

C. Robespierre and his supporters set out to build a “republic of virtue” by wiping out every trace of France’s past 

VIII. A Cultural Revolution 

A. No more white bread! (It was the bread of aristocracy) 

B. Introduced the Metric System/New Calendar to promote efficiency 

C. Dechristianize France 

1. They even closed all churches in Paris, and cities and towns all over 

France soon did the same 

IX. Republic of Virtue 

A. An invention of the Enlightenment 

1. Guillotine → A quick, painless death 

X. Events of 1795-1799 

A. The Directory took control of France 

1. But France still suffered through severe financial crisis

a) Inflation 

b) Food shortage 

c) Corruption 

2. The Directory became increasingly reliant on the military for stability The French Revolution: The Moderate Phase 

I. Goals of the Revolution 

A. Abolish Feudalism 

B. Destroy the Estates system 

C. Create a Constitutional Monarchy 

II. Moderate Reforms 1789-1791 

A. August 4, 1789 

1. Nobles agree to abolish feudalism 

B. Declaration of the Rights of Man (August 26, 1789) 

1. King Louis XVI didn’t agree! 

III. Declaration of Rights 

A. Placed sovereignty in the “nation” 

B. Wealth (not birth, blood or privilege) new basis for social order 

C. Liberty, property, security 

D. Freedom of speech, press 

E. Right to participate in lawmaking process 

IV. How did he sign? 

A. Outraged by the (still) too high price of bread, the women of Paris marched to Versailles to drag the king back to Paris 

1. The women’s march to Versailles over food prices became intertwined with the political reforms the Bourgeoisie were trying to enact 

2. Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette address the crowd and promise to return to Paris and accept the Declaration of the Rights of Man 

V. The Church is Weakened 

A. Civil Constitution of the Clergy (1790): 

1. Sought to end power and influence of Catholic Church 

2. Priests and bishops were to be elected. 

3. Church lands would be sold 

4. Ended papal authority 

B. 400 million francs in Church property auctioned off (10% of Church land) VI. Constitution of 1791 

A. Created a limited monarchy 

1. Legislative Assembly was created to make new laws, conduct foreign affairs, collect taxes (but only 50,000 of 27 million were eligible for 

office) 

2. Equal rights were guaranteed to all citizens

VII. Summary of Changes 

A. The Church (First Estate) lost it’s privileges 

1. The Nobility (Second Estate) lost their privileges no more feudalism 

2. The Monarchy is no longer absolutist 

VIII. External and Internal Threats 

A. 1791, Declaration of Pillnitz 

1. Prussia and Austria vow to invade France to protect monarchy 

a) Conservative response 

(1) 1792- Legislative Assembly declares war on Austria, 

Prussia and Britain 

(a) France would later take northern Italy and western 

Prussia 

(b) Set up dependent republics in Italy and Netherlands 

B. Priests- opposed Revolution for Civil Constitution (less than 1/2 of clergy and only 7 of 100 bishops took oath) 

C. Royalists- mostly nobles who wanted a return to monarchy 

IX. The Plight of Louis the Last 

A. August 1792- Tuileries 

1. Mob attacks king’s palace and kills the guards 

2. King flees to Legislative Assembly for protection 

B. The French Republic 

1. September 1792- National Convention meets 

2. Abolished monarchy, established republic 

3. 3. Universal male suffrage 

C. Louis XVI was captured trying to flee to other rulers in Europe and was convicted of treason against the republic 

D. Jan. 1793- Louis XVI guillotined for treason 

The French Revolution- Causes 

I. Context 

A. The estates general 

1. The Estates General is a meeting, usually called by the king, where he can petition/demand representatives of the classes of France for money, new 

laws, new taxes. 

a) The Estates General was established in the 14th Century, and can 

click back as far as 1309. 

b) It was comprised of three different estates 

2. The first estate → The clergy 

(1) The clergy held a great deal of power and influence since 

the Middle Ages. 

(a) It made up about .5% of the population

3. The second estate → The nobility 

(1) The nobility held large amounts of wealth in France. 

(2) It made up about 1.5% of the population 

4. The third estate → The commoners 

a) The commoners held small amounts of wealth and made up the 

workforce in France. 

b) It made up about 98% of the population 

II. Causes 

A. Issue #1 - inequality in taxation 

1. The third estate, making up 98% of the population, was tasked with paying the majority of the taxes. 

a) The argument made by the first two estates for this was that if 

there were more of them, then each individual did not have to pay 

as much and there was little to no need to tax the first two estates 

heavily 

B. Issue #2 - inequality in representation 

1. The estates, though drastically unequal in population, each had 1 vote in the Estates General 

a) This meant that any taxes or issues that came to vote, ran the risk 

of leading to a first/second estate majority over the commons. 

C. Issue #3 - financial distress 

1. War debts 

a) Involvement in the Seven Years’ War and the American 

Revolution left the country in deep debt. 

2. Extravagant Spending 

a) Royals had been spending lavishly on themselves evidenced by the 

Palace at Versailles and how it was adorned. 

3. Taxation on the Third Estate 

a) Burden of war debts fell on the Third Estate 

b) Poor Harvests 

(1) Led to food insecurity and also a larger reliance on exports 

(2) Led to inflation causing more damage to the lower classes 

III. The response 

A. Taking Action 

1. Louis XVI decided to call the Estates General in an attempt to raise funds to deal with the financial crisis. 

2. His intent was to tax the Second Estate. 

B. Each estate was instructed to prepare cahiers (lists of grievances). The grievances were: 

1. More fair taxation system

2. Freedom of the press 

3. Regular meetings of the Estates General 

C. Upon returning, the Third Estate was locked out of the meeting. 

1. There aren’t bigger ways to send a message of “sorry, not sorry.” 

IV. The tennis court oath, June 20, 1789 

A. The Third Estate decided to find an open space to meet. 

1. They met on a Tennis Court and swore to each other that they would not meet with the other Estates or engage the government until a new 

Constitution was drawn up. 

2. This became known as the Tennis Court Oath and the Third Estate took on the name of the National Assembly. 

V. Shots fired 

A. The storming of the bastille, July 14,1789 

1. The National Assembly was convinced that the King was raising arms against them, so they took action. 

a) The revolutionaries stormed the Bastille (mostly craftsmen and 

shop owners). 

b) The Bastille served as a state prison at this point and was 

considered a symbol t (Louis XVI’s family line). 

c) This served as the marker for the start of the Revolution and is also 

the date of Bastille Day today. 

VI. Alternative reasons 

A. Not everyone shared the belief that the causes we have laid out were the causes of the Revolution. 

The Napoleonic Era 

I. Napoleon’s rise and reforms 

A. Napoleon’s rise to power 

1. Napoleon began as a decorated general in the army, was tasked with 

breaking up rioters at the palace in Paris 

a) Built prestige fighting wars in Italy and Egypt 

2. With the government in disarray, Napoleon launched a successful coup d’ etat on November 9, 1799. 

3. He proclaimed himself “First Consul” [Julius Caesar’s title] and did away with the elected Assembly [appointing a Senate instead]. 

4. In 1802, he made himself sole “Consul for Life.” 

a) Two years later he proclaimed himself “Emperor.” 

II. Reform 1: Concordat of 1801 

A. Napoleon wanted to heal the divisions within the Catholic Church that had developed after the confiscation of Church property and the Civil Constitution of

the Clergy. 

1. Real intent was to build reputation points for his rule 

III. The Concordat of 1801 

A. Catholicism was declared the religion of the majority of Frenchmen. 

1. Papal acceptance of church lands lost during the Revolution. 

2. Bishops subservient to the regime. 

3. Eventually, Pope Pius VII renounced the Concordat, and Napoleon had him brought to France and placed under house arrest 

IV. Reform 2: The Napoleonic Code or Code Napoleon 

A. Its purpose was to reform the French legal code to reflect the principles of the French Revolution 

1. Create one law code for France 

V. Reform 2: the Napoleonic code of laws 

A. It divides civil law into: 

1. Personal status 

2. Property 

3. The acquisition of property 

4. establishes the paternal household 

5. a new set of business laws 

6. provided religious freedom 

VI. Impact on Europe 

A. The Napoleonic Code wore out feudalism in the countries it touched (it will reach many!) 

VII. Napoleonic Europe 

A. The continental system 

1. Loss to Britain here (magnificent naval battle won by Britain under Lord Nelson → Leads to this system implemented by Napoleon) 

VIII. The continental system 

A. Napoleon would begin to slowly move into neighboring countries and subdued them with his French army. 

1. Any country he controlled he would be forced to enter the Continental System. 

a) Continental System → massive trade block or embargo that 

prevented countries from trading with Britain. 

IX. Purpose of the continental system 

A. GOAL → to isolate Britain and promote Napoleon’s mastery over Europe 1. Berlin Decrees (1806) 

a) British ships were not allowed in European ports. 

2. “Order in Council” (1806) 

a) Britain proclaimed any ship stopping in Britain would be seized

when it entered the Continent. 

3. Milan Decree (1807) 

a) Napoleon proclaimed any ship stopping in Britain would be seized 

when it entered the Continent. 

B. These edicts eventually led to the United States declaring war on Britain 1. WAR OF 1812 

X. Peninsular campaign 

A. Portugal did not comply with the Continental System 

B. France wanted Spain’s support to invade Portugal 

C. Spain refused, so Napoleon invaded Spain as well! 

D. Napoleon tricked the Spanish king and prince to come to France, where he imprisoned them. 

1. He proclaimed his brother, Joseph, to be the new king of Spain. 

2. He stationed over 100,000 Fr troops in Madrid. 

E. On May 2, 1808 [Dos de Mayo] the Spanish rose up in rebellion. 

F. On May 3, 1808 French troops fired on the crowd in Madrid the next day [Tres de Mayo] 

XI. Exit from Spain 

A. Napoleon now poured 500,00 troops into Spain over the next few years. 1. But, the French generals still had trouble subduing the Spanish population. B. The British viewed this uprising as an opportunity to weaken Napoleon. 1. They moved an army into Portugal to protect that country and to aid the Spanish guerillas. 

C. After 5 long years of savage fighting, France troops were finally pushed back across the Pyrenees Mountains out of Spain.e 

XII. Issues with Russia 

A. Alexander I → czar of Russia during the Napoleonic Era 

1. Alexander would begin to instruct his merchants and officials to smuggle goods from Britain. 

2. This act was in clear violation of the Continental System and led Napoleon to make the decision to invade Russia. 

XIII. Invasion of Russia 

A. Napoleon would lead 400,000 troops into Russia with plans to occupy and control Moscow. 

1. Alexander I would follow a scorched earth policy and burn his own crops along the way to Moscow. 

2. Napoleon would arrive in an empty and evacuated Moscow. 

3. With no supplies, Napoleon was forced to retreat. 

XIV. Battle of Nations 

A. During Napoleon's retreat, he was attacked by the Russian troops who were

following him and was forced into Leipzig, Germany 

B. A coalition of armies awaited him in the town square and after much fighting, he would surrender and be forced into exile to the island of Elba 

XV. Abdication by Napoleon 

A. Allied forces occupied Paris on March 31, 1814. 

B. Napoléon abdicated on April 6 in favor of his son, but the Allies insisted on unconditional surrender. 

C. Napoléon abdicated again on April 11. 

D. The Treaty of Fontainebleau → exiles Napoléon to Elba with an annual income of 2,000,000 francs. 

1. The royalists took control and restored 

2. Louis XIII to the throne 

XVI. Battle of Waterloo and Napoleon’s end 

A. Napoleon would escape from Elba and return to France 

1. His family would be held in Austria 

B. Napoleon would engage the Grand Alliance (7th Coalition) in the Battle of Waterloo. 

1. Napoleon would earn early victories but would halt his advance due to rain 

2. His halt allowed the other nations to recover and defeat him 

3. He would be exiled again to the island of St. Helena 

Congress of Vienna 

I. Key Players at Vienna 

A. The “Host”, Prince Klemens von Metternich (Aus.) 

B. Tsar Alexander I (Rus.) 

C. King Frederick William III (Prus.) 

D. Foreign Minister, Viscount Castlereagh (Br) 

E. Foreign Minister, Charles Maurice de Tallyrand (Fr.) 

II. The Quadruple Alliance 

A. Austria 

B. Britain 

C. Prussia 

D. Russia 

E. Goal: To create a lasting peace in Europe by suppressing revolution 

III. Central Goals: Undo Napoleon 

A. These goals became agreements during the Congress of Vienna and would dictate the political landscape of Europe for the 19^th Century and beyond 

1. Balance of power → rules constructed to ensure that no nation becomes stronger militarily than any other nation in Europe, later called the Concert of Europe

a) This is an extremely important event…. 

2. Principle of Legitimacy → belief that absolute monarchy was the most stable form of government for European nations, hence the monarchy in 

France should be restored 

IV. In summary 

A. The Congress of Vienna established 

1. Balance of Power 

2. Legitimacy of rulers 

3. The need for compensation 

V. The Metternich System: 

A. Liberalism is the seed of chaos. 

B. Conservative regimes keep order. 

C. Legitimate absolute rule is the best way to govern. 

D. All revolutions must be stamped out. 

VI. To expand and note 

A. Three particular viewpoints stood out as the foundations for many political parties: 

1. Liberals → usually professional or businesspeople, middle class, believed there should be gradual changes to government 

a) The roots of the revolution, derived from the middle class more 

often than not, highly progressive, and in the eyes of the leaders of 

Europe, needed suppression. 

2. Radicals → usually of the lower classes, believed that there needs to be rapid and drastic changes to government 

a) Those that took progressive ideas and shifted them dramatically 

into dangerous directions. These are the people upon seizing 

power, were likely to make dramatic and dangerous changes 

3. Conservatives → usually of the upper class, extremely wealthy, believed there should be little to no change to old forms of government 

a) The rulers, the nobles, the elite. The leaders of the Congress of 

Vienna, who saw this moment as their counter-revolution against 

liberals. Needed to ensure that their power could not be taken or 

lost. 

VII. The Creation of Buffer States 

A. GOAL: To isolate France and prevent future French invasions 

1. Russia 

a) Fought to gain portions of poland and finland 

b) Note: European countries were reluctant to allow russia to move 

further into europe 

2. Prussia gained:

a) Part of Poland 

b) Land along the Rhine River 

c) 40% of Saxony 

d) Swedish Pomerania and Westphalia 

3. The Germanic Confederation 

a) Creation of 39 Germanic States (down from 300) 

b) Replaces the Holy Roman Empire 

4. Austria gained: 

a) Lombardy 

b) Modena 

c) Parma 

d) Tuscany 

e) Venetia 

f) All are areas in modern Italy 

5. England gained: 

a) Malta 

b) Cape Colony 

c) Ceylon (Sri Lanka) 

d) Guyana 

6. France 

a) Borders restored to 1792 

b) Restoration of King Louis XVIII 

VIII. Why was France not broken up and forced into bankruptcy? 

A. Talleyrand convinced the Congress of Vienna that France under the legitimate monarch Louis XVIII can not be held accountable for the actions of the 

illegitimate Napoleon. 

B. To bankrupt France would make it vulnerable to revolution and would threaten the Balance of Power. 

C. To take away land would also threaten the Balance of Power. 

IX. Major Effect: The Concert of Europe 

A. One of the most studied outcomes of the Congress of Vienna was the construction of the Concert of Europe 

1. Many view this as the first attempt at a true international republic, one in which everyone gives some of their power up for the good of a common 

goal. 

2. This is also a milepost as alliances become important for the maintenance of peace in Europe 

X. Major Effect: Conservative Pushback 

A. The Congress of Vienna for the most part (Except Britain) was in agreement that the Revolutions were:

1. Liberal driven (the middle class) 

2. Enlightenment driven (idea of liberty and release from monarchies) 

B. As a result, the changes made in the Congress were intended to stamp out revolutions to maintain their own power. 

1. Many historians refer to this as the Conservative pushback to liberal revolution. 

2. It is important to view this point on a continuum (conservative rule 

(absolute monarchies) → Enlightenment → liberal response (revolution) → conservative pushback (Concert of Europe). 

The Industrial Revolution: Factories and Workers I. Industrial changes 

A. From: Rural Society Based on Agriculture 

B. To: Urban Society based on manufacturing 

II. Urbanization 

A. Urbanization increased dramatically: 

1. Poor families lived in poorly constructed apartments built by factory owners called tenements in neighborhoods called slums 

2. Many families shared cramped apartments that lacked running water or sanitation 

3. Hard factory jobs and disease led to short life expectancies for urban workers 

III. Why did Pollution become such a significant problem in the Industrial Revolution? A. Reasons: 

1. Overpopulation in areas that were not prepared for it (more people, more trash) 

2. Poor sanitation and water treatment 

3. New factories did not handle waste removal properly. 

4. Coal burning damaged the air quality badly 

IV. The Factory System 

A. Rigid schedule. 

B. 12-14 hour day. 

C. Dangerous conditions. 

D. Mind-numbing monotony. 

V. How did working conditions during the Industrial Revolution affect the workers? A. Work Rules 

1. Do not leave your work station without your overseer's permission. 

2. If you are late you will not be paid. 

3. Workers who produce poor quality work will be discharged. 

4. There will be no talking except what is necessary.

5. Those who fail to obey orders will be punished. 

The Industrial Revolution: New Creations 

I. Definition 

A. With the advent of new innovations in manufacturing, the older systems of production could not keep up with the new changes. 

B. Industrial Revolution → the shift from the use of domestic systems of production to those of factory production. 

II. Changes in Textiles 

A. John Kay would invent the flying shuttle → sped up how one would separate threads and weave them together. 

1. Spinners attempted to keep up with the rate at which threads were being separated → spinning jenny would be created → allowed one to spin 

threads at a significantly faster rate. 

B. Power Loom → was able to weave multiple threads together at once. 1. The power loom would now allow weavers to keep up with the spinners who were producing large amounts of thread in a short amount of time. 

III. Changes in Extraction 

A. With the new means of production, extraction of cotton needed to be increased. 1. Eli Whitney, after numerous attempts, would create the cotton gin → separated the seeds from the cotton plant without the need of human 

extraction. 

IV. Overarching Changes 

A. With the new inventions becoming larger and larger, homes could not house these new inventions and new spaces were needed. 

B. The Domestic system became obsolete → domestic system is a system in which production occurred within the homes of the workers. 

C. The shift now turned to a factory system → system in which production occurred within factories rather than in homes. 

V. James Watt 

A. Watt → created the first steam engine. 

1. Steam engines would now allow for factories to move away from water sources → factories were previously powered by water. 

2. The steam engine would take on many iterations over time 

VI. Changes in Factory Production 

A. Henry Ford would innovate the factory system within the field of manufacturing with his new ideas. 

1. Interchangeable parts → parts that could be used in one machine could be used to replace parts in another. 

2. Mass production → system by which workers would work in an assembly line and only take up one aspect of the production method to speed up

production. 

VII. Gugliemo Marconi 

A. Marconi → inventor of the radio. 

1. The radio would change the lives of many citizens. 

2. Allowed news to be spread at a faster rate, served as a means to make the world smaller now that information traveled at a faster rate. 

VIII. Alessandro Volta 

A. Volta → created the portable battery. 

1. The battery would allow for machines to become portable and used in 

different places. 

2. Also allowed for the use of portable devices and gave birth to a new 

industry. 

IX. Adam Smith 

A. Smith → author of the Wealth of Nations → book that gave rise to the capitalist economy and dictated economic trends within capitalism. 

1. believed in laissez-faire economics → government should not intervene in economic affairs 

2. The Idea was based on three laws one of which was supply and demand → theory used to dictate cost. 

3. low supply + high demand = high prices. 

4. high supply + low demand = low prices. 

X. White Collar vs. Blue Collar 

A. The Industrial Revolution would lead to the construction of two social classes. 1. White Collar → workers who owned factories and worked in offices, were never involved in manual labor. 

2. Blue Collar → workers who worked in the factories and built the 

machines, were always involved in manual labor. 

XI. Why Britain? 

A. The British were at the forefront of the Industrial Revolution for various reasons. 1. had rich reserves of coal and iron, the two primary ingredients for 

industrialization. 

2. access to water ports for easy shipping and energy. 

3. a collection of colonies to import raw materials from. 

4. wealthy businessmen and entrepreneurs to invest 

5. political stability 

XII. Changes in Transport 

A. Considering the fact that factories needed to be near waterways, the only means by which to move goods in England efficiently involved the use of waterways. B. Problem: 

1. Many rivers were unnavigable or were too far from factories.

2. Thus, canals were built to link the factories to major rivers in England 

XIII. Improvements to Roads 

A. Roads were constructed poorly during the 18^th and 19^th Centuries. 

B. Roads were mostly dirt roads and these roads would turn into mud once rain would come through an area. 

C. John MacAdam would invent a tarmac → combination of gravel and tar that could make a flat road that could withstand the elements. 

XIV. Robert Fulton and the Steamship 

A. Fulton → invented the steamship engine. 

B. Revolutionized travel across the continent and the world. 

C. Shortened long voyages in some cases from 2 months to 2 weeks. 

XV. Stephenson and the Railroads 

A. George Stephenson would help invent a smaller version of the steam engine that could be placed on a locomotive. 

B. The first railroad track would be laid down between Manchester and Liverpool. C. Soon enough, thousands of miles of track would be laid down in England. D. The technology would later spread to the United States and help fuel the Manifest Destiny period of the United States. 

XVI. Effects of Railroads 

A. Encouraged further industrial growth → was a fast, cheap way to transport materials and allowed for the construction of other factories farther away from their raw materials 

B. Provided millions of new jobs → many people were needed for the backbreaking work of leveling land, laying down tracks and building bridges 

C. Gave a further boost to agriculture → farmers could market their goods in many other cities instead of just the ones that were the closest to them 

D. Changed the perception about travel in general → people believed travel to be a nuisance and something that was only done when absolutely necessary; now people took jobs in cities and traveled constantly because of the ease and cost efficiency provided by the railroads 

XVII. Other Innovations 

A. Automobiles → 1885, Karl Benz creates the first automobile powered by an internal-combustion engine. This arrived in conjunction with the first gas 

powered engine invented by Gottlieb Daimler. 

B. Planes → 1903, Orville and Wilbur Wright make the first successful flight on the plane they built. This was taken steps further in 1927, when Lindbergh made a nonstop flight from New York to Paris. 

C. Telegraph → machine that sends sound codes over cables. First transatlantic cable was laid down in 1866. 

D. Telephone → machine that sends sound waves over cable lines; created by

Alexander Graham Bell in 1876 

Responses to Industrialism 

I. Changes in Ideals 

A. With the growth of industrialism, the different social classes had different interpretations into what governments and economic activity should look like. B. The poor believed that rights should be expanded and laws should be made to protect the lower classes in factories. 

C. The upper classes sought little to no change since they were benefiting from the system that was currently in place where they acquired all the profits of 

industrialism. 

D. The middle classes believed in laissez faire economics and thought that rights and privileges should be expanded to the other classes. 

II. The Dismal Science: Classical Economists 

A. Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo 

1. Both argued that although the working class did not benefit much from the early industrial revolution 

2. It should not be interfered with as that would slow economic growth… III. Thomas Malthus 

A. Population growth will outpace the food supply. 

B. War, disease, or famine would control population 

C. The poor should have less children. 

D. Food supply will then keep up with the population. 

IV. David Ricardo’s Iron Law of Wages 

A. High wages: Workers have more children → 

B. Surplus of workers: Lower Wages → 

C. Lower Wages: Workers have fewer children → 

D. Shortage of Workers: Higher Wages 

V. Looking Outward 

A. Because many changes that the lower classes sought were not being instituted, many turned to other forms of government which they believed could bring the change that they were looking for. 

B. Many of the lower classes turned to socialism, an economic and political system in which profits were shared and people cooperated with each other rather than competed with each other. 

VI. Utopianism and Robert Owen 

A. Robert Owen, a wealthy businessman, sought to use radical methods as a means of making the lives of the working class significantly better. 

B. Owen bought a cotton mill in Scotland and used the area surrounding it for his socialist experiment. 

C. He would construct his own schools and buildings all with high standards and

provided great working and living conditions for the mill workers. 

D. All the workers shared in the profits of the mill and Owen created what he believed was a Utopian society. 

E. Utopianism → the belief that a perfect society can be constructed 

F. The idea ultimately failed since many could not cooperate with each other to a high enough degree to ensure the success of the society 

VII. Louis Blanc and his Utopia 

A. Louis Blanc, newspaper owner and Utopian socialist had his own radical ideas as to how to create a utopia. 

B. Blanc believed that workers should be taught how to run factories and then be ceded control of those factories to generate their own profits. 

C. He believed people should be paid according to need and ability. 

D. Workshops would be set up in this fashion in France but would ultimately fail VIII. The Rise of the Labor Union 

A. Workers sought more immediate ways to influence owners to give them higher wages and workers' rights. 

B. One of these solutions was to form labor unions. 

1. Labor unions → groups of workers who work the same occupation 

unifying to pressure owners to cede more rights and privileges. 

IX. Tactics of Labor Unions 

A. Labor Unions used many different tactics to acquire more rights and privileges. 1. Collective bargaining → using representatives to speak to owners and 

work together to negotiate terms, wages, benefits, and privileges. 

a) If this failed, arbitration was typically used. 

2. Strikes → complete work stoppage until demands are met. 

3. Boycotts → complete refusal to buy a product or service until a demand is met. 

a) If the owners could not find a way to get the workers back, they 

would use blacklisting → a list that is compiled of workers who 

should not be hired because of participation in strikes or other 

damaging activity. 

Industrial Revolution: Causes, Factories, Urbanization I. The agricultural revolution was indispensable to Britain's industrialization because: A. It greatly increased cotton cultivation 

B. Many of the resulting inventions could be harnessed to industrial areas C. It freed up the labor needed to work in factories 

D. It destroyed the cottage industry, making it necessary to find another way of producing the consumer goods in demand 

II. The First Revolution

A. Reason #1: Workers 

1. Enclosure Acts – caused many small farmers to lose their lands, and these former farmers increased the labor supply 

B. Reason # 2: Capital 

1. The Commercial Revolution made many English merchants very wealthy a) Wealth from colonies 

2. These merchants had the capital to invest in the factory system – money to buy buildings, machinery, and raw materials 

C. Reason #3: Colonies and Markets 

1. England had more colonies than any other nation 

2. Its colonies gave England access to enormous markets and vast amounts of raw materials 

D. Reason #4: Raw Materials 

1. England itself possessed the necessary raw materials to create and power the means of production 

2. Coal – vast coal reserves powered steam engines 

3. Iron – basic building block of large machines, railroad tracks, trains, and ships 

4. Water - numerous rivers and canals, necessary for water wheels 

E. Reason #5: Geography/Stability 

1. Great Britain did not suffer fighting on its land during the wars of the 18^th century 

2. Island has excellent harbors and ports 

3. Government stable 

III. Urbanization 

A. Urbanization increased dramatically: 

1. Poor families lived in poorly constructed apartments built by factory 

owners called tenements in neighborhoods called slums 

2. Many families shared cramped apartments that lacked running water or sanitation 

3. Hard factory jobs and disease led to short life expectancies for urban workers 

a) The Factory System 

(1) Rigid schedule. 

(2) 12-14 hour day. 

(3) Dangerous conditions. 

(4) Mind-numbing monotony. 

IV. How did working conditions during the Industrial Revolution affect the workers? A. Work Rules 

1. Do not leave your work station without your overseer's permission.

2. If you are late you will not be paid. 

3. Workers who produce poor quality work will be discharged. 

4. There will be no talking except what is necessary. 

5. Those who fail to obey orders will be punished. 

Reactions to the Industrial Revolution 

I. Adam Smith 

A. Wealth of Nations, 1776 

B. Argued for “laissez faire” – “leave it alone” or “hands off” approach 

C. Believed that the superior economy was one in which the government had no regulation over it… 

1. Reasons 

a) The Invisible Hand” → society’s goals will be met as individuals 

seek their own self-interest (law of self-interest) 

b) Competition and self-interest act as an invisible hand that regulates 

the free market (law of competition and supply and demand) 

D. It’s important to note that Smith was actually railing against the economic system of his time. 

1. Commerce could be used as an instrument of war. Merchants could rile up nationalism in order to establish trade 

E. The Invisible Hand was not necessarily saying government intervention was a bad thing - but that government intervention pushed by merchant elites was! 

1. He believed that a government run by merchants was dangerous. Prices would be high and quality would be low. Businesses should, in fact, be 

monitored. 

F. On the other hand - he also believed that politicians made terrible merchants. 1. Merchants were harmful but necessary 

II. Impact of the division of labor… 

A. “[Common people / workers] have little time to spare for education. [...] As soon as they are able to work they must apply to some [work] by which they can earn their subsistence. That [work], too, is generally so simple and uniform as to give little exercise to the understanding 7 [skill], while, at the same time, their labor is both so constant and so severe, that it leaves them little leisure and less inclination to apply to, or even to think of, anything else.” - Adam Smith 

III. Capitalism v. Mercantilism 

A. Capitalism: an economic and political system in which a country's trade and industry are controlled by private owners for profit, rather than by the state 1. How did the Middle Class benefit? 

a) Middle class = benefited the most from industrialization 

(1) Size, power, and wealth of the middle class increased 

(2) Upper levels = factory and mine owners, bankers,

merchants 

2. How did the Middle Class view themselves? 

a) New middle class comes from merchants, investors in factories and 

skilled artisans. 

(1) New middle class values hard work and determination to 

“get ahead.” 

(2) New middle class has confidence in itself and little 

sympathy for poor 

(a) They are in their position due to lack of dedicated 

work ethic 

3. The Working Class 

a) Accidents very common → no workers’ compensation 

b) Strict work schedules 

c) 10-14 hours a day in unventilated rooms 

d) Diseases like pneumonia and tuberculosis = common 

e) Wages extremely low 

IV. How did Karl Marx explain the growing gap between the rich and the poor? A. Capitalist greed 

B. “Let the ruling classes tremble at a communist revolution. The proletarians have nothing to lose but their chains. They have a world to win. Workingman of all countries, unite!” 

C. Marxism/Communism: is a socioeconomic system structured upon common ownership of the means of production and characterized by the absence of social classes and money 

D. How to fix it? Revolution! 

1. Marx argued that all of history can be boiled down into a class struggle 2. In the Industrial Era – the bourgeoisie (factory owners, businessmen, and the middle class) were pitted against the proletariat (working class) 

V. The Luddites 

A. Had a hard time staying employed (they had supported themselves through the cottage system) 

B. The English government had outlawed unions, strikes, or meetings so the Luddites came up with a different plan 

C. The government in England responded strongly – executions would stop the Luddites. 

Cult of Domesticity 

I. Hegemony: 

A. The social, cultural, ideological, or economic influence exerted by a dominant group 

II. Impact of Industrialization

A. Early phase 

1. Working class women held jobs in factories and mines in addition to 

caring for their home & families 

2. Middle class women assisted their husbands in new established factories and stores 

B. Later phases 

1. Life stays the same for working class women 

2. Middle class women were discouraged from working 

III. Issues facing women 

A. Factory owners disliked employing married women 

1. Likelihood of pregnancy 

2. Influence of husbands 

3. Duties of child rearing 

4. Reliability and focus can be brought into question 

IV. Lower-Middle Class Women in the Second Industrial Revolution 

A. During the late 19th century, major developments affected economic lives of women 

1. Expansion in variety of available jobs 

2. Retail stores 

3. Elementary school teachers 

4. Technological inventions and innovations 

B. Wages still remained low for women as employers assumed husband or father would provide additional financial support 

V. Men v. Women 

A. Men were seen as rational, decisive and practical (Breadwinner) 

B. Women were seen as loving, nurturing, morally pure, and emotional 

(Homemaker) 

VI. A Doll’s House: The Cult of Domesticity 

A. A woman’s place is in the home! 

B. A true lady doesn’t work (not even housework!) 

C. A woman’s job is to create a pleasant home for her husband and children VII. Working Class Women 

A. Not “true” women 

B. Sexually corrupt 

C. Impure 

D. Not deserving of the same respect as a “Lady” 

E. Vulnerable members of society 

VIII. The “Rest Cure” 

A. Unhappy women were considered mentally ill and were confined to bed for weeks at a time. Virtually no movement was permitted.

B. Electrical shocks were used to restore “vitality” 

IX. Social Disabilities Confronted by All Women 

A. During early 19th century, European women faced social and legal disabilities 1. Property rights 

a) No married women could own property 

b) Limited freedom to work, save and relocate 

2. Family law 

a) Napoleonic Code made women legal minors 

b) Husband assumed authority over children in cases of divorce 

3. Education 

a) Most women educated only enough for domestic careers 

b) Absence of private or public secondary education 

X. Women’s Suffrage Movement 

1. Some women went against the Cult of Domesticity with the Women’s Suffrage Movement 

2. Some died for the cause 

a) Emily Davison wanted to get King George V’s attention to the 

Woman’s Suffrage cause 

b) She went to the races and wanted to pin a women’s suffrage pin to 

the King’s horse… 

XI. James Barry 1789-1865 

A. Assigned female at birth, Barry would later identify and live as a man. B. He received his medical degree at the age of 17 and spent time abroad working for the British Army. 

C. He improved sanitation systems and set up leper sanctuaries and improved conditions for prisoners of war and lower rank soldiers. While in Africa, he performed one of the first Caesarean sections in which the baby and mother lived. 

D. He even worked with Nightingale during the Crimean War. Nightingale would later call him one of the cruelest men she ever met…. 

E. While there is some debate about whether Barry was a woman pretending to be a man in order to become a doctor, it is much more likely that Barry was a transgender man. The language we use today to discuss the LGBTQ+ community didn’t exist back then - it doesn’t mean this community didn’t exist! 

F. Barry would never allow anyone into the room while undressing, and repeated a standing instruction that "in the event of his death, strict precautions should be adopted to prevent any examination of his person" and that the body should be "buried in [the] bed sheets without further inspection", indicating a desire to conceal physical sex both in life and in death. 

G. We Are Family, an LGBT magazine, argues that this is strong evidence of Barry's having been a transgender man, given that "his wish was to die and be

remembered as a man. So we should honor that. 

XII. Timeline of When Women got the Right to Vote 

A. 1893 New Zealand 

B. 1902 Australia 

C. 1906 Finland 

D. 1913 Norway 

E. 1915 Denmark 

F. 1917 Canada 

G. 1918 Austria, Germany, Poland, Russia 

H. 1919 Netherlands 

I. 1920 United States 

J. 1921 Sweden 

K. 1928 Britain, Ireland 

L. 1931 Spain 

M. 1934 Turkey 

N. 1944 France 

O. 1945 Italy 

P. 1971 Switzerland 

The Agricultural Revolution 

I. Life in the 18th Century 

A. Most people lived in rural villages; small communities 

1. Farming = major economic sector 

2. 1/3 of the babies died before 1 year old; life expectancy was 40 years old 3. Disease was common 

II. Issues in European Agriculture during the 16th and 17th Centuries A. The Little Ice Age caused major climate shifts 

1. temps were colder disrupting farming seasons and causing a decline in production. 

B. Agricultural Methods were dated 

1. field flipping system and technology were dated and could not meet the demands of the growing population 

C. Warfare was constant 

1. destroyed land, disrupted farming and allowed disease to spread easily D. The darker a region indicates a higher population density. 

1. More people living in smaller areas 

2. Concentrations of people have effects. 

III. Production in the 18th Century 

A. Production of goods was done primarily through the domestic system of production. 

B. Domestic system → system of production where goods are produced by hand or

simple machine in the home. 

C. Mass production is practically impossible at this time 

1. think about how much one person can produce 

IV. Science 

A. Selective Breeding 

1. Selective Breeding became popular during the time. 

a) was a way to improve or keep the traits most valuable and weed 

out the undesirable traits. 

V. Science in Farming 

A. The arrival of new crops, such as the potato, made getting a lot of food from a small farm more possible. 

B. The Three field system dating back to the Middle Ages 

C. New forms of farming → 4 field rotation. The four-field system employed in place of the Three-Field System 

D. Charles “Turnip” Townshend 

1. pushed the use of legumes and turnips in the field rotations 

2. Turnips could be used to feed animals in the winter and legumes would allow the soil to retain some fertility 

VI. The Enclosure Movement: Making Space 

A. The Common Pasture 

1. Common land is land owned collectively, which people have certain 

traditional rights, such as to allow their livestock to graze upon it, to 

collect firewood 

B. The downside: 

1. Hurt poor farmers who lost grazing rights for their cattle on the common land 

C. The Upside: 

1. Agricultural production, as a whole, became more market-oriented and efficient. 

D. England was ahead of the curve in carving out land for specific uses. 

1. This is important to note as enclosure ensured that production levels 

would grow immensely and a strong thriving market could exist. 

E. As wealthy farmers began to enclose portions of the common land, poor farmers began to be forced off their land – and work for their wealthy neighbors 

VII. Technology 

A. Jethro Tull’s Seed Drill 

1. Tull’s horse-drawn seed drill made sowing seed more efficient and precise. VIII. Three catalysts for the Industrial Revolution 

A. Science: Improved farming methods → increased population and stability of the population

B. Enclosure movement → The increased population moved to cities and towns to work 

C. Technology advances → The Industrial Revolution needed workers to employ their advances in production 

IX. So, the stage is set for the Industrial Revolution 

A. Enclosures and selective breeding led to cheaper food 

B. Cheaper food led to population explosion 

C. Population explosion led to rural unemployment 

D. Rural unemployment led to urbanization (a move towards larger cities) X. Why britain? 

A. Natural Resources → Coal and Iron, water 

B. Capital → Merchants had become wealthy during Britain’s global expansion C. Urbanization → Unemployed farmers moved to the cities 

D. Food → Ample supply allowed for population growth 

Irish Famine (& Potatoes) 

I. The English Penal Laws of 1695 

A. The Irish Can’t: 

1. Serve as an officer in the British Army or Navy, 

2. Hold any government office 

3. Vote 

4. Buy land 

5. Practice law 

6. Attend school 

7. Possess weapons 

8. Export trade was forbidden as Irish commerce and industry were 

deliberately destroyed 

II. Life in Ireland BEFORE the famine: 

A. Among the poorest countries in the western World. 

B. 25% literate 

C. Life expectancy: 40 years 

D. The Irish married quite young, girls at 16, boys at 17 or 18, and tended to have large families, although infant mortality was also quite high. 

III. The Protestant Takeover: Oliver Cromwell 

A. Ruled as a Puritan dictator 

B. HATED Catholics 

C. In 1649 he invaded Ireland! 

D. Enacts the Penal Laws 

E. Hated so much he died twice 

IV. The Results of the Invasion:

A. 

B. In Essence: 

1. Virtually all landowners were English and protestant 

2. The tenants were almost all Irish and CATHOLIC 

V. Corn Laws (1815) 

A. Protective Tariff on foreign wheat 

B. Enriched the landed gentry at the expense of everyone else 

VI. The Potato Blight 

A. The blight began in 1845 and lasted 6 years 

B. Was caused by an airborne fungus brought from Mexico by British Ships C. Caused the potato to blacken and rot from the inside out 

VII. Why would the blight have such a negative effect on the Irish? 

A. Landlords only cared about the rents: They put more people on the land than could be supported. The nutrients in the soil were depleted. 

B. Potatoes yield more per sq. foot than grain with very little work--Potatoes made the most sense to grow 

C. No potato crop meant no food and no income 

D. No income meant no money for rent 

VIII. Why would the British belief in Laissez-faire hurt relief efforts? A. Ended corn shipments 

B. Didn’t want to hurt landlords 

C. Irish grain was exported around the world but never given to the Irish D. The Irish have too many children and need to get out of poverty themselves E. Charity doesn’t help! 

IX. What Britain did do: 

A. Repeal of the Corn laws made grain cheaper but the Irish still couldn’t afford it.

B. Prime Minister Robert Peel set up very cheap corn shipments but there was poor distribution 

C. Reform>Revolution 

1. Parliament’s willingness to pass modest reforms saved Britain from the revolutionary upheavals that happened on the continent. 

X. The Results 

A. Over 1 million died 

B. Over 500,000 evicted 

C. Up to 250,000 emigrated per year of the famine (1845-1852) ➔ Coffin Ships 1. Exodus 

2. Slow response 

3. People Dying 

4. Government Debate 

XI. Overall Timeline 

A. Elections were held in March 1898, and the new government was in place two months later. 

B. Well, two months after the elections, the United States invaded Puerto Rico on July 25, 1898 during the Spanish-American War. 

C. Some of the Puerto Rican peasants resisted the invasion—most were captured, then tied to trees and executed. 

D. In 1899, the New York Times ran an article describing Puerto Ricans as “uneducated, simple-minded and harmless people.” 

E. By World War I, the United States passed the Jones Act, granting Puerto Ricans citizenship with the sole purpose of drafting them for war. 

F. There was a Constitutional Referendum in 1952, approving a constitution proposed by Congress in 1950, though stripped of social democracy. 

G. Then, on November 27, 1953, UN Resolution 748 authorized the U.S. to determine the “status of territories under its sovereignty.” 

H. This was a devastating blow from the international community to the Puerto Rican independence movement and those seeking decolonization. 

I. In the midst of all the political repression, there was also substantial economic turmoil caused by U.S. corporate interests. 

J. In 1976, the U.S. altered the internal revenue code, allowing U.S. companies to operate in Puerto Rico without paying corporate taxes 

K. By 2006, Congress had closed the federal tax breaks, and corporations fled, plunging the island into a massive recession. 

L. Wall Street owned most of the borrowed money in predatory debts, making massive profits on triple tax-exempt bonds. 

M. Puerto Rico was hemorrhaging money, and had no legal recourse to settle debts to creditors.

N. Wall Street continued to profit. 

O. Decades of predatory debt from Wall Street sent Puerto Rico into the $123 Billion debt crisis that is still taking place today. 

P. As recently as October 2016, the Supreme Court held that the U.S. Congress still has the supreme authority over the island. 

Capitalism and Socialism 

I. Karl Marx and the Communist Manifesto 

A. Marx was an economist born in Prussia (Germany) 

B. Met Fredrich Engels in Paris and the two of them worked on the Communist Manifesto 

II. What did the Manifesto State? 

A. The Communist Manifesto centered itself on the concept of class struggle. 1. Class struggle → also known as historical materialism, the idea that the two major classes, the workers (proletariat) and the owners (bourgeoisie) will constantly be at odds over wages and capital. 

B. What happens then? 

1. According to Marx and Engels, the class struggle will ultimately lead to a proletariat revolution. 

a) The idea that the workers will eventually overthrow the owners 

and own the means of production and capital. 

b) The communal ownership of factories and means of production is 

the endgame of what is known as scientific socialism 

(1) Scientific socialism → understanding social, political and 

economic trends through scientific observation and data 

and making predictions based upon that data. 

(a) In essence, communal ownership of capital and the 

means by which capital is produced with an 

understanding of the mechanisms at play and how 

successful results can be perpetuated. 

III. Capitalism and Wealth Inequality 

A. Capitalism, posited by Adam Smith, is predicated on private ownership, free movement of capital and minimal government intervention. 

1. The system as a result allows for the creation of structures that create wealth gaps when gone unchecked 

IV. How does Marx fit in? 

A. Marx’s argument against capitalism is that it separates the workers from the product they produce. 

1. Therefore, they get no share in the profit from it and their labor can be undervalued 

2. Also, it is unlikely they will receive a skill that can help them switch to a

more lucrative job. 

V. Wealth Inequality - Why should you care? 

A. There are numerous reasons to address wealth inequality. 

1. It causes/prolongs human suffering. 

2. It can damage future generations, not just the current one 

3. Causes lack of real freedom due to lack of capital gain 

4. Undermines democracy as people have the wealth to influence others 

while others do not. 

5. Makes social solidarity impossible 

VI. What Makes Wealth Inequality? 

A. First we have to understand how we generate income in a capitalist society: 1. Labor markets 

2. Returns on capital assets (homes, cars, stock) 

3. Transfers from interpersonal networks (inheritance) 

4. Income from the product of your own labor 

5. Transfers from the state 

VII. Solutions 

A. Marx’s socialist concept addresses the issues we spoke of before. 

1. Stakeholder grants 

2. Universal Basic Income 

3. Market Socialization 

VIII. How is this manifested in the Industrial Revolution? 

A. The Industrial Revolution drastically changed the scope of labor vs. capital 1. Laborers produced capital for the upper classes 

a) This made them distant from the capital and did not allow them to 

have “freedom” 

b) The lower classes could not develop skills that could allow them to 

move up in class. 

2. Owners were reluctant to release capital to workers 

a) Allowed them to be able to separate them from the lower classes 

b) Allowed them to build capital and economic freedom 

c) Allowed them to build generational wealth. 

IX. How is this manifested today? 

A. Wealth gap is a major issue in the United States today. 

1. Much of the wealth of the country is tied to the upper 1% of the 

population 

2. People in the lower classes do not have “living wages” which restrict their freedom and prevent them from building capital assets. 

X. Key Points 

A. Industrialization vastly improved production and lead to massive gains for many

countries 

B. Industrialization led to rapid urbanization which countries were not ready for C. Industrialization created a larger wealth gap and gave rise to new economic and political ideologies 

Intro to Nationalism 

I. Theories of Nationalism 

A. Nationalism as a major force during the past 2 centuries. 

1. Began appearing during the French Revolution, can be claimed even 

further back depending on definition 

B. Pre-capitalist political and social affiliation: tribes, feudalism, dynastic empires 1. Before the formal creation of the nation-state (17th/18th Centuries), it can be argued that various groups experienced, felt nationalism 

C. Link between nationalism and modernity: capitalism, industrialization 1. Emergence of nationalist in Europe in 18th century and its spread 

2. Tied to the unification movements of Germany, Italy, Austria 

II. What is a Nation? 

A. Nation is not a physical entity but a sentiment 

1. Nation is a collection of people bound together by common values and traditions, often sharing the same language, history and affiliation to a 

geographical area 

2. Members identify themselves define themselves against others 

B. According to Benedict Anderson (leading author on Nationalism) 

1. Nations are “imagined communities” 

2. Nations are imagined by people who perceive themselves as part of that group 

3. It is not based on every-day interaction among people who perceive 

themselves as members of that nation 

III. Conflicting ideas 

A. According to Benedict Anderson (leading author on Nationalism) 

1. Nations are “imagined communities” 

2. Nations are imagined by people who perceive themselves as part of that group 

3. It is not based on every-day interaction among people who perceive 

themselves as members of that nation 

4. He argues they are the product of the European print movement that 

created shared experiences and language on which nations are based. 

B. According to Partha Chatterjee, 

1. Nations begin as imagined communities but DEVELOP into physical entities. 

2. When nations create systems of governance, boundaries and laws, they

move into the real and express themselves as such. 

3. She argues that nations are not inherently European creations and have existed before the nationalist movements. 

IV. Universal Principles of Nationalism 

A. Nationalism principally values: 

1. The nation 

2. Organic community 

3. Self determination 

4. Culturalism 

B. Nationalism manifests in several different forms, including: 

1. Cultural nationalism: national identity is formed by shared cultural 

traditions not on the concepts of ancestry and race 

2. Political nationalism: less ideological, the belief that the nation is the 

proper unit of government, creates political boundaries, has collective 

symbols, laws, systems of government 

3. Ethnic nationalism: the belief in and desire to preserve the ethnic 

distinctiveness of nation members based on shared ancestry or race 

V. Cultural Nationalism 

A. Nationalism that is made up of shared traditions and norms. 

1. Can be composed of multiple ethnicities 

2. Can have multiple languages/dialects 

3. Can exist without political markers 

4. Is more imagined and usually harkens back to an EVENT that unified the group. 

a) It can be argued that American nationalism can be cultural 

b) Multiple ethnicities live within the country but share the values 

that Americans hold dear 

c) “Life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness” is a good example. 

VI. Political Nationalism 

A. Political nationalism is highly contradictory and ambiguous, for example inspiring liberation and oppression. 

1. Used to create governments that can push to create boundaries against other nations. 

2. Can be liberal, conservative, anti-colonial, post-colonial and expansionist 3. Are the means by which nations gain independence and international 

recognition. 

4. Brings the imaginary into the real → allows nations to physically manifest VII. Ethnic Nationalism 

A. Nationalism that is based on shared ancestry, race/ethnic markers and traditions. B. Ethnic nationalism can exist WITHOUT political boundaries and markers

1. Groups share the same language/derivatives 

2. Groups have a shared and common past which makes unification easier 3. Has history which gives it a more concrete nature 

a) Can be transnational (not only in one place) 

b) Can claim ancestral lands/spaces → Kurds and Kurdistan is a 

strong example of this. 

VIII. Conclusions 

A. It means nationalism will express itself in a variety of ways and we have to be flexible in how we engage it. 

B. For our purposes, nationalism is: 

1. the belief that one's greatest loyalty should not be to a king or an empire but to a nation of people who share a common culture and history. (AP 

World Curriculum) 

2. BUT, this does not keep us from studying it through multiple lenses. 

Italian Unification 

I. Types of Nationalism 

A. Unification 

1. Merging of politically divided but culturally similar lands 

B. Separation 

1. Culturally distinct group resists being added to a state or tries to break away 

II. Nationalism throughout history 

A. 18-19^th century (French Revolution / Napoleonic Wars) 

1. Nationalism spread throughout Europe / Americas 

2. Loyalty shifted from the king to the country 

B. 19^th-20^th century 

1. Nationalism grew because of increased education, culture and technology III. 1815: Impact of the Congress of Vienna 

A. Austria → Wanted weaker neighbors 

B. Local rulers → wanted to maintain control 

C. The Pope → Feared losing land and power in Italy 

D. Nationalism reawakens in Italy! 

E. After the Napoleonic Wars, nationalistic feelings brought many of the Italian people together 

1. Why? 

a) Common customs 

b) Common language 

c) Common traditions 

d) Common enemy 

IV. Barriers to Italian Nationalism

A. Geography → Apennine Mountains split east from west. River splits north from south. 

B. Illiteracy → Most of population could not read or write (hard to spread propaganda) 

C. Lack of European support → A strong Italy may interfere with European affairs V. Giuseppe Mazzini (the soul of unification): 1805 - 1872 

A. Formed “Young Italy” in 1832 -> Encourage enthusiasm for a united Italy 1. Is considered by historians a futurist → progression of the state at a rapid speed 

a) Is also considered one of the first globalists → believed that there 

could be one unified global culture rather than many. 

b) End foreign rule 

c) Unify Italy based on common language, geography, history, and 

economic benefits 

B. Italians, and other regions around Europe, began to revolt against the old, conservative, order established at the Congress of Vienna. 

C. Almost all of these revolutions failed! 

VI. Camillo Cavour (the mind of the unification): 1810 – 1861 

A. Travelled to France and Great Britain → Admired constitutional governments B. 1850 - Elected to parliament in Piedmont 

C. His Impact 

1. Goal: Unite northern Italy as a liberal constitutional monarchy! 

2. In Piedmont, 

a) Reformed finances 

b) Balanced state budget 

c) Established banks, railroads, factories 

(1) Connected to Mazzini’s futurist ideals as he saw the growth 

of industry as a catalyst for the creation of a modern Italy 

VII. 1858 - Connections 

A. Cavour → Met with Napoleon III of France….(that same Napoleon from the failed Franco-Prussian War) 

B. Discussed a secret arrangement! 

1. Provoke Austria into war 

a) Piedmont would acquire Lombardy 

2. Other northern Italian states soon voted to join Cavour 

3. Nationalism was growing! 

VIII. Nationalism Grows 

A. In the south, Giuseppe Garibaldi led an army – The Red Shirts, to Sicily. B. After gaining control of southern Italy – people voted to unite with the north C. 1861 – Kingdom of Italy established

IX. Anita Garibaldi 

A. Taught Giuseppe how to live like a gaucho (nomadic horseback/cowboy) B. She fought with him in South America against in the Latin American wars of independence 

C. Captured but escaped on horseback! (Died in the 1848 Italian revolutions) X. Challenges After Unification 

A. Social, Economic Problems 

1. Industrial north, agricultural south 

2. Catholic Church did not recognize Italy as legitimate nation 

3. Illiteracy was still a major problem 

B. Poverty, Emigration 

1. 1880s, large numbers left Italy, many for Americans 

2. Unemployment, rising taxes led to rioting, violence 

C. Reforms 

1. 1870, only wealthiest Italian men could vote 

2. By late 1800s most adult male taxpayers could vote 

Austrian Nationalism 

I. The Impact of the Congress of Vienna 

A. In the Congress of Vienna, Metternich successfully: 

1. Prevented German Unification 

2. Added territories from Italy to increase the size of the empire 

3. Successfully preserved the institution of absolutism in Austria-Hungary and in the major empires of Europe except Britain. 

II. Carlsbad Decrees 

A. Using the murder of a writer August von Kotzebue (defender of the monarchy), Metternich made dramatic reforms that spoke to the direction of the government. B. These were known as the Carlsbad Decrees. 

III. Changes or Lack Thereof? 

A. Remember, Emperor Francis I and Metternich were both ardent conservatives. 1. They made sure to suppress anything liberal or any opportunity for liberal movements in the empire. 

2. This meant suppressing Industrialization 

IV. The Impact of Industrialization 

A. Industrialization, along Marxist ideology oddly enough, lead to: 

1. Class division and struggle 

2. Anger from lack of proper wages and class divide 

3. Ultimately, revolution that could bring unwelcome changes to 

government. 

V. 1848 and the End of the Metternich Era 

A. Revolutions against the conditions that existed in Europe at the time

B. Hungarian Nationalism was savagely crushed by Austrian and Russian armies 1. Hungary would be ruled as a conquered territory 

2. Metternich was removed to reduce the tensions 

VI. Hapsburgs: Franz Joseph 

A. Franz Joseph becomes emperor in 1848 (lasts until 1916) 

1. 1859: Loses to France and Italy 

a) New Constitution 

2. 1866: Loses to Prussia 

a) Dual Monarchy of Austria and Hungary Created 

B. 1859- Austrian Empire lost Lombardy and Venetia to Italian Unification C. 1866- Austrian Empire lost territory to German Unification 

VII. Hungarian Reforms 

A. The nationalism in Hungary was more modern in that it demanded more from the sovereign but also demanded a more Hungarian identity. 

1. The changes instituted during this time reflect these thoughts 

B. Changes: 

1. Language used was Hungarian rather than Latin or German 

2. The March Laws 

a) The peasantry was freed (were in serfdom for the most part) 

b) Freedom of the press and religion (except Judaism) and equality 

under the law 

c) Still excluded minority populations such as the Serbs, Romanians 

and Croats to preserve Hungarian national identity 

The Unification of Germany 

I. REWIND: The Congress of Vienna 

A. Napoleon’s actions in Europe had dramatic effects: 

1. The conservative pushback to liberal revolution 

2. Austria as a leading force in the German Confederation 

B. German Confederation is composed of 38 states 

1. Prussia is within this confederation (more on this later) 

C. Klemens von Metternich (one of the architects of the major decisions in the Congress of Vienna) sought to keep the German Confederation separated 1. A unified Germany would be a strong force in Europe 

2. A unified Germany would take territory away from Austria 

3. It would be too difficult to unify anyway (why do you think?) 

II. Results 

A. Prussia and Austria compete for dominance of the Confederation 

1. Marked by two families 

2. Prussia - Hohenzollern 

3. Austria - Habsburg

III. The Push to Unify Germany 

A. Considering all of the information here, we can conclude that Germany could be unified under the bounds of: 

1. Common language (leaning into cultural/ethnic) 

2. Shared cultural norms (cultural) 

a) The unification of both could bring the imagined into the real → 

political nationalism 

IV. The Unification Moves 

A. First Attempt 

1. German liberals attempted to push for unification under William IV (king of Prussia) in 1848. 

2. He refused to do so under the pretense that he does not want to “accept the throne from the people.” 

V. Otto Von Bismarck 

A. Chancellor of Prussia 

B. Highly Conservative 

C. Believed that the German Confederation should be unified under Prussia 1. Launched a tactic known as Blood and Iron 

VI. Blood and Iron - What does this mean? 

A. The position of Prussia in Germany will not be determined by its liberalism but by its power ... Prussia must concentrate its strength and hold it for the favourable moment, which has already come and gone several times. Since the treaties of 

Vienna, our frontiers have been ill-designed for a healthy body politic. Not through speeches and majority decisions will the great questions of the day be decided - that was the great mistake of 1848 and 1849 - but by iron and blood. VII. Bismarck’s views 

A. Bismarck’s calling card was that he was a realist, he had no interest in ideology. 1. This manifests itself in realpolitik 

2. Realpolitik → A system of politics or principles based on practical rather than moral or ideological considerations. 

3. Efficiency is more important the ideology 

4. Get real results 

VIII. Challenges and Responses 

A. A unified state required liberal party buy-in. 

1. Bismarck had to dismantle socialism and liberalism to complete his goal to unify Germany 

2. Two moves: 

a) Created a social welfare program (first in Europe!) that provided 

health insurance, accident insurance and retirement benefits 

b) Reduced the power of the church

(1) Oversaw Catholic education, ordered civil unions, and 

influenced the appointment of priests. 

IX. Challenges and Responses 

A. Bismarck pushed for industrialization 

1. Allowed them to compete on the global market BUT, there was a need for resources taking us back to Blood and Iron 

X. The Danish War of 1864 

A. Austria and Prussia declare war against the Danes due to their attempt to lay claim to German speaking territories 

1. Austria and Prussia, in a unified front defeat the Danes and split the 

territories of Schleswig-Holstein 

XI. The Seven Weeks’ War (1866) 

A. Prussians launch a war against Austria for control of the newly acquired Danish lands 

1. Prussia defeated Austria and acquires both territories AND some states in the northern portion of the German Confederation 

XII. The Franco-Prussian War 

A. Prussia then shifted its attention to France 

1. Used the Ems Dispatch to instigate a war against France 

2. Defeated the French and acquired Alsace-Lorraine 

Ottoman Decline and Nationalism 

I. The Millet System 

A. Millet: Semi-autonomous communities organized by religion and administered by leaders of a religious group during the Ottoman Empire 

II. Causes for Ottoman Decline 

A. Empire shrank in size: European aggression 

B. Ottoman state had weakened: Less ability to raise revenue 

C. Weakened Military: Janissaries (elite military) were defenders of status quo (keep things the same) 

III. Territorial Losses 

A. Cause #1 = European aggression 

1. Invasions from Russia, Britain, France, and Austria 

2. Example: one of the earliest invasions = in 1798 = Napoleon’s invasion of Egypt 

B. Connections to the Outside World 

1. Europeans achieved direct access to Asia = no longer needed to go 

through Ottoman lands 

2. Ottoman artisans and workers hit hard by cheap products coming out of Europe 

C. Background Check

1. 1850s: The Crimean War was a result of Russian pressure on Turkey; this threatened British commercial and strategic interests in the Middle East 

and India. 

2. Forced to accept defeat, Russia sought peace in January 1856. It had lost 500,000 troops, mostly to disease, malnutrition, and exposure; its 

economy was ruined, and its primitive industries were incapable of 

producing modern weapons 

D. Cause #2 = Nationalism 

1. Greece became independent in the early 1800s. 

2. Case Study: 1876 Bulgarian Uprising 

a) Bulgarian revolt against Ottoman Empire 

(1) Ottomans crushed the rebellion 

(2) Bulgarians began to receive support 

IV. International Response 

A. Other nations, shocked by the atrocities, began to call for Ottoman reform and withdrawal 

1. The Russian Empire sent military help to lead a revolution against the Ottoman Empire 

2. Russian led coalition of Balkan states won and forced the Ottoman Empire to sign the Treaty of San Stefano - Bulgaria was born! 

V. The Ottoman Empire: Attempts at Reform 

A. Launched to combat the slow decline of the empire that had seen its borders shrink and its strength weaken in comparison to the European powers 

B. Started the Tanzimat (reorganization) reform: 

1. Modern mining operations 

2. Telegraphs, steamships, railroads, modern postal service 

Imperialism in India 

I. Imperialism 

A. is the domination by one country of the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or region. 

B. First Wave of European Colonialism 

1. 1500s - 1600s 

2. In the Western Hemisphere (Americas) 

3. Spain and Portugal = were major players; 

4. Devastated native populations 

5. Europeans chose the path of conquest and outright colonial rule 

C. Second Wave of European Colonialism 

1. 1750 – 1900 

2. In Africa and Asia 

3. New countries involved = Germany, Italy, Belgium, the U.S., Japan

4. Some examples of mass devastation 

5. Europeans preferred informal control (cheaper & less likely to cause war) D. Major Factors of Imperialism 

1. Economic 

2. Psychological/Military 

3. Humanitarian 

a) Missionaries, doctors, believed they had a duty to spread the 

“blessings” of western civilization -> medicine, law and 

Christianity 

4. Social Darwinism 

a) Natural selection and survival of the fittest applies to humanity 

(1) Race theory was the scientific explanation 

(2) Race hierarchies placed the white European above all 

others. 

b) European conquest and destruction would improve the human 

species 

II. Forms of Imperial Rule 

A. Settler Colonies 

1. Complete control of another country. 

2. Settlers from the mother country come to the colony to live and govern. B. Protectorate 

1. Local rulers were left in place but were expected to follow the advice of European advisers. 

C. Spheres Of Influence 

1. One country dominates trade with that area 

D. European Nations 

1. Becoming more democratic 

2. Swept up in nationalism 

3. Christian and Enlightenment idea of human equality 

4. Industrialization and modernization 

E. European Colonies 

1. Were mostly dictatorships (used to create order and stability) 

2. Total opposite of national independence 

3. Racial divisions, ranked racial classifications, etc. 

4. Modernization discouraged because Europeans did not want 

modernization to cause opposition to colonial rule 

III. Case 1: The British in India 

A. Lifeline of the British Empire 

1. Suez Canal – Originally built by a French company in 1869 

2. Purchased by Great Britain in 1875

3. 1882 – Outbreak in region against British rule led to a protectorate 

B. Why India? 

1. The British want raw materials India produced - cotton, spices, sugar, and tea 

2. Raw materials shipped to Britain for use in British factories – finished products were then shipped around the world to British colonies 

3. British East India Company: 1600 - 1874 

a) Main purpose -> Economic. It is a company! 

IV. Sepoys 

A. Sepoy = Indian serving as a soldier in the British East India Company B. 160,000 British-Indian soldiers in India 

C. Only 24,000 from Britain 

D. In one decision – the British managed to offend virtually everyone in their army. E. Cows – Sacred to Hindus 

F. Pigs – Unclean to Muslims 

V. Sepoy Rebellion 1857 

A. Not just Sepoys! 

1. Peasants, landlords, unemployed weavers 

B. Sepoys marched to Delhi, old Mughal capital, and declared the old Mughal leader as their own 

C. Not just Sepoys! 

1. Peasants, landlords, unemployed weavers 

D. Sepoys marched to Delhi, old Mughal capital, and declared the old Mughal leader as their own 

VI. Result 

A. Britain crushed the revolt. 

1. Slaughtered sepoys 

2. Torched villages 

3. Killed thousands of unarmed Indians 

4. BEIC abolished and Britain gained direct control and made India a colony. VII. British Raj = British Rule 

A. After 1858, Parliament set up a system of colonial rule in India. 

1. Cleared forests 

2. Built railroads and telegraph networks 

3. Encouraged cultivation of valuable crops 

4. Established English-style schools for Indian children 

VIII. British India 

A. Levels 

1. British Officials → Indian Elite → Indian Population 

B. Taught English

C. Expected to absorb British customs 

IX. 1885: Indian National Congress 

A. GOAL = Indian independence 

The British in China 

I. China in the 19^th Century 

A. China lagged behind in industrialization because it operated under the ethnocentric belief that the Western nations had nothing to offer the Chinese except precious metals. 

B. Ethnocentrism → belief that one's culture is superior to all others. 

C. China, under the Ch'ing Dynasty, allowed for seasonal trading in Macau and Canton but did not allow foreigners to remain year round. 

II. The cycle 

A. British buy land in India and force people to grow poppy plants and process it into opium 

B. British sell opium to China and gain influence in China 

C. British use profits to buy Tea which is sold in UK also use profits to buy more land in India 

III. Lin Zexu 

A. Arrested 1,600 people 

B. Seized 20,000 crates of opium (and then burned a lot of it!) 

C. Took 500 people a month to burn it all 

D. Ordered to port of Canton closed to all foreign merchants 

IV. The Importation of Opium 

A. European nations sought to correct a horrible imbalance of trade with China since the opening of Macau in the 16^th Century. 

B. Chinese would acquire large amounts of silver for their tea, coal, and porcelain but the European nations had little to sell the Chinese. 

C. Britain would begin the importation of opium → addictive drug made from the poppy plant 

V. Opium War 

A. As the British flooded China with opium through Macau, the Chinese government began to crack down on its importation. 

B. The British would grow hostile after 20,000 chests of opium were destroyed. C. The British would use their gunboats to force the Chinese into submission and force them to sign the first of the “Unequal Treaties”, the Treaty of Nanking VI. Treaty of Nanking (1842) 

A. The Treaty of Nanking is considered to favor the British greatly, it stated: 1. Five more ports were opened for British trade. 

2. Hong Kong was ceded to the British

3. Large indemnity payments were expected – 21 million 

4. Extraterritoriality was granted → officials who were in China and 

committed crimes were tried in their home country rather than in the 

country they committed the crime within. 

VII. The Second Opium War 

A. Beliefs that the Chinese were finding ways to kill top officials (speculated) and an attempt to renew the Treaty of Nanking led to the Second Opium War. 

B. The British and the French would defeat the Chinese in the Second Opium War and would force the second of the “Unequal Treaties”, the Treaty of Tientsin. VIII. Treaty of Tientsin 

A. The Treaty of Tientsin allowed even more foreign spheres of influence to be created within China in 1858. 

B. It stipulated: 

1. 11 more ports are open to westerners 

2. Foreign traders and Chinese missionaries could move into the Chinese interior 

3. Opium could be legally imported into China 

Chinese Resistance 

I. The Self-Strengthening Movement 1870’s 

A. “Chinese learning at the base, Western learning for use” 

1. Use the government to promote economic and military reform, 

industrialization. 

2. Leans heavily into Confucian thought 

B. After this crushing defeat – many in China see the need to reverse their isolationist policy 

1. A rush towards modernization 

2. Women allowed in schools 

3. Math and sciences stressed in place of Confucianism 

4. Mining, shipping, railroads, banking 

5. Increase nationalism by leaning into the successful and progressive 

aspects of China’s past 

II. Further Issues: Taiping Rebellion (1850-1864) 

A. The Opium Wars contributed greatly but also: 

1. The unequal treaties allowing foreigners to enter and dominate China 

2. An extravagant court, tax evasion by the rich, and widespread official 

corruption added to the peasants’ burden. 

3. The civil service system was rocked by bribery scandals. 

III. Taiping Rebellion 

A. Hong Xiuquan – leader of the rebellion. 

1. Failed the imperial exams

2. Thought he was the brother of Jesus Christ 

B. Wanted 

1. Community ownership 

2. Equality for women and men 

3. Abstinence from opium, tobacco and alcohol 

IV. Effects 

A. Almost ended the Qing Dynasty. 

B. 25 Million dead 

C. A weakened dynasty 

V. Sphere of influence 

A. another country has power to affect developments, but no formal authority VI. Boxer Rebellion 

A. The Chinese under a radical group known as the Righteous and Harmonious Fists would lead a rebellion to remove foreigners from China. 

B. The group would attack embassies and foreigners in Beijing and neighboring areas for a period of time. 

C. The United States and other major forces would assist China in putting down the rebellion. 

1. China would be forced to pay a large indemnity. 

VII. Red Lanterns 

A. Group of Chinese women who also fought against imperialism 

VIII. China Relief Expedition 

A. Britain, France, Germany, Austria-Hungary, Japan, Russia, and The USA B. Goal → Save foreign nationals in China + secure trading rights 

C. Result → China loses, pays $330,000,000 to foreign powers and allows territorial rights to the victors. 

The British in Canada 

I. The State of Canada in the Early 19th Century 

A. Canada was divided into two major regions early in the 19th Century: 

1. Upper Canada dominated by British colonists 

2. Lower Canada dominated by Canadiens, French colonists who date back to the 18th Century. 

B. The two regions engaged in large amounts of infighting between the two regions and economic reform was impossible 

1. Due to bad harvests 

2. Poor relations 

C. In 1839, Lord Durham ran a survey of the territories to report back to Britain how to handle the situation. 

II. Act of Union 1840

A. The British decided to allow Canada to determine its own policies. 

B. It could also elect its own legislature but still had to allow Britain to determine its foreign and trade policies. 

III. Dominion of Canada, July 1, 1867 

A. Nova Scotia, New Brunswick, and the Province of Canada are proclaimed the Dominion of Canada 

B. Establishes its own Parliament and self-rule 

C. Opens the doors to expansion for the Canadians 

IV. The Residential School System 

A. Schools were constructed to slowly erode the cultural heritage of the First Nations 1. Numerous abuses occurred in the schools 

2. Many suffer from PTSD from the system itself 

3. Last one was closed in 1996. 

V. Reservation Lands 

A. Were sold and cut into pieces by the Canadian government. 

B. The lands were held in trust by the Canadian government 

C. Could be used for mining and logging purposes 

1. Also to improve infrastructure 

VI. Reckoning with the Past 

A. In 2008, Canada formally apologized for ripping indigenous children from their families and placing them in state or church schools. 

1. The report launched into the schools found that more than 6000 children died in those schools. 

2. Concluded that the Canadian government sought to cause Aboriginal peoples to cease to exist as distinct legal, social, cultural and racial entities in Canada. 

B. In 2015, Prime Minister Justin Trudeau acknowledged that there were at least 1017 homicides of indigenous women and 164 disappearances, though the number could be much higher. 

VII. Is it Truly Over? 

A. The response to the inquiry was scathing. 

1. Pointed out that there are other issues, human rights issues, that have not been addressed 

2. There are still women going missing and being murdered with little 

investigation into what happened to them by the Canadian Police 

Imperialism in Japan 

I. Japan’s History 

A. The Japanese had been organized in the feudal system since the 13th Century 1. Reorganization occurred after the end of the Nara period (inherently 

Chinese rule) in Japan

2. This reorganization created powerful clans and power resided in the 

shoguns. 

B. 1600 – 1850 = Japan unified and ruled by the Tokugawa Shogunate 

1. Shogun = military ruler 

2. Chief task = prevent return of civil war among the 260 daimyo 

3. Feudal lords → each with their own band of samurai 

4. Japan wasn’t really “unified” 

C. 1600’s – Shoguns in Japan gain power – Closed Japan to foreigners 

D. 1853 – Commodore Matthew Perry reaches Japan with a fleet of US ships II. The Treaty of Kanagawa 

A. Signed under threat of force 

1. Ends Japanese policy of exclusion 

2. Opened up ports in Japan 

3. Ensured safety of American castaways 

III. Harris Treaty 1858 

A. “If you accept my proposals, Japan will become the England of the Orient.” 1. Opened up additional 5 ports to the US 

2. Extraterritoriality for US citizens in Japan 

IV. The Meiji Restoration 

A. The humiliation of the Japanese at the hands of Americans led the Japanese to rebuke the rule of the shoguns 

1. Shogun was forced to abdicate 

a) New government established restored true power back to the 

emperor who would take the name Meiji (enlightened peace/one) 

for his reign 

b) Powers of the diet (legislature) limited 

c) Civil service system adopted. 

B. Meiji Restoration Goal 1: Save Japan from foreign domination 

C. Meiji Restoration Goal 2: Transform and modernize Japanese society by drawing upon Western achievements and ideas 

V. Modernization 

A. Modernization in Japan occurred through selective borrowing (taking some ideas from other cultures but not all) 

1. Modeled their military after Prussia 

2. Modeled the navy after Britain 

3. Created a postal and educational system. 

4. Created a mixed economic system 

a) Free market ideas with intense government control 

b) Created zaibatsus 

VI. Saigo Takamori

A. Held a position in the Meiji government but became disillusioned 

1. Tried to provoke a war with Korea in order to restore the confidence in the Samurai 

2. Volunteered to go to Korea and insult their leaders so that they would kill him - the plan was rejected 

B. He then resigned and recruited Samurai to follow him. 

C. Samurai lost many rights during this era - they used to be the only ones that could fight, were tax exempt, could kill commoners if they received disrespect 

D. The rebellion was crushed and Japan began to recruit soldiers from all classes. The Samurai lost their power and prestige 

E. However, the way that Saigo Takamori inspired many in Japan to honor the old system inspired the Emperor to pardon him for his rebellion and ensure that the Samurai code of ethics was maintained! 

VII. Expansion 

A. In 1894, Japan defeated China, gaining treaty ports in China and control over the island of Taiwan. 

B. In 1905, Japan defeated Russia gaining control of Korea 

C. In 1910, Japan annexed Korea 

VIII. Sino-Japanese War 

A. In 1894, Japan and China fought over control of Korea and the Chinese, still decimated from multiple rebellions, could not mount a proper defense. 

1. China would cede territory as a result: 

a) Korea as a sphere of influence 

b) Formosa (Taiwan, now the Republic of China) 

IX. The Russo-Japanese War 1904 

A. Fought over control of Manchuria and Korea 

1. Japan sought to protect its new spheres of influence in China and Korea, Russia sought to keep its warm water port in China 

2. Japan deals Russia a humiliating naval defeat marking the first time an Eastern power toppled a Western one. 

X. Treaty of Portsmouth 

A. The Treaty of Portsmouth, brokered by Theodore Roosevelt in Maine gave more power to Japan: 

1. Gave Japan ports in China 

2. Control over Manchuria 

3. Protectorate in Korea 

XI. Anglo-Japanese Treaty (1902) 

A. Acknowledged Japan as an equal player among the “Great Powers” of the world B. Ended extraterritoriality 

Imperialism in SE Asia

I. Why SE Asia? 

A. Demand for Asian products drove Western imperialists to seek possession of Southeast Asian lands. 

B. Foreign countries also sought ways to enter into China from the South to access markets. 

1. Entering from India was difficult due to the Himalayas 

2. Entering from Vietnam was possible through the Mekong River 

II. Colonial Impact 

A. Colonization brought mixed results in Southeast Asia. 

B. Economies grew based on cash crops and exported goods. 

III. The French in Southeast Asia 

A. The French sent Catholic missionaries and traders to Vietnam in the early 1800’s B. In 1858 Napoleon III sent a Naval expedition to Vietnam to punish the Vietnamese for mistreating the missionaries. 

C. The French defeated Vietnamese forces which forced Vietnamese ruler to sign Treaty of Saigon, 1862 

D. Treaty gave France control of most of territory in southern Vietnam 

IV. France in Southeast Asia 

A. French Colonialism 

1. French built roads, railroads, irrigation systems 

2. Introduced reforms in education, medical care 

3. Many French citizens became rich from tea, rubber plantations 

B. Resentment of French 

1. Many Vietnamese farmers unable to pay high taxes, fell into debt 

2. Vietnamese resentment of French rulers grew throughout 1800s, 1900s V. Adversity 

A. The French, attempting to hold interests in Hanoi, sent Francois Garnier to assist in the situation. 

1. Instead of defending interests, he tried to conquer Hanoi. 

a) he was met with resistance from the Vietnamese who had appealed 

to the Black Flags. 

VI. Black Flag Army 

A. Black Flag Army was a group of Chinese rebels who in essence were highly trained mercenaries. 

1. they were brutal and very difficult to defeat 

VII. Siam gains Independence 

A. Siam (Thailand today) was only Southeast Asian country to retain independence in 1800s 

B. Both Britain and France saw the advantage of making Siam a buffer, or neutral zone, between them.

C. Siam was forced to accept some unequal treaties but escaped becoming a European colony. 

VIII. The Father of Science and Technology 

A. King Mongkut -1851-1868 did not underestimate European power! 

1. Had studied modern science and mathematics and understood the West better than other Asian rulers 

2. Mongkut modernized Thailand to keep up with the west 

IX. Westernization 

A. Anna Leonowens was hired as a British governess by King Mungkut to teach his 39 wives and 82 children in a western style. 

American Imperialism 

I. The Spanish American War 

A. American attempts to establish economic footholds in the Caribbean put them in a tense situation with Spain. 

1. The relations took a turn for the worse with the destruction of the USS Maine in the Caribbean (one of the first instances of yellow journalism) 

2. The United States punishes the Spanish navy off of the Philippines. 

a) 1898: the Caribbean 

b) 1898: the Philippense 

3. The state of the Philippines: The expectation of independence disappeared quickly (the Americans were not liberators here) 

4. Not long after the Filipinos claimed independence and had their one and only president in 1898 

5. Leading to the Philippine-American War from 1899-1902. United States ended the war with the Philippine Organic Act of 1902 

a) Extended the Bill of Rights to Filipinos 

b) Created a legislature/assembly 

II. The Treaty of Paris 

A. United States acquired Philippines, Guam, Puerto Rico and Cuba for 20 million USD 

III. Puerto Rico 

A. 1897: Spain granted Puerto Rico independence 

B. 1898: Us invaded Puerto Rico during Spanish-American War…. NY Times article describing them as “uneducated, simple-minded and harmless people.” 

C. WW1: Jones Act granted Puerto Ricans US Citizenship with the purpose of drafting them for war 

IV. Circumventing the Obvious… 

A. The United States long sought a route to the Pacific without having to circle South America. 

1. The US petitions Colombia to allow for the construction of a canal which

was refused. 

2. Coincidentally, the Panamanians revolted against the Colombians which was backed by the US. 

3. The canal was built in 1914 providing the much desired route 

V. Why might this seem strange? 

A. America was a colony! 

B. BUT! Some Americans felt it was their duty to help America become a world power by colonizing. 

C. Others felt that colonizing would open new markets and trade possibilities. VI. Dollar Diplomacy 

A. Policy that encouraged US businesses to invest in the development of countries in Latin America and to build industries in them 

1. US reserved the right to defend its interests if the countries threatened them 

2. This was the basis for American intervention in the Americas going 

forward 

American Imperialism on the Mainland 

I. The Monroe Doctrine 

A. Stipulated that the Americas were no longer open to European colonization B. Stated that the United States will be neutral in any European affairs 

C. Stated that the United States will defend their territory and the newly independent nations by force against European intervention. 

II. Manifest Destiny and Imperialism 

A. Though American began as 13 Colonies, it began a rapid territorial expansion through purchases and expeditions to the west. 

1. This was all based on the concept of Manifest Destiny → it was the right of Americans to settle all territories to the west. 

2. It leads people to question whether this was an early version of 

imperialism or not: Was Manifest Destiny Justified? 

III. Alaska Purchase - 1867 

A. William Seward arranged a deal with Russia to purchase the Alaska Territory for 7.2 million dollars 

1. Was initially called Seward’s Folly since it was seen as useless territory 2. Klondike gold discovery quickly proved that wrong. 

B. With this purchase, there was no more land to occupy on the American mainland. IV. Hawaii - 1898 

A. Hawaii was already being used as a territory to acquire sugar and fruit by western American businessmen such as the Dole Family. 

1. Helped businesses create sugar monopolies that later would lead to the Sugar Wars between the Eastern and Western sugar producers

a) Side note: this would also lead to more instances of American 

business intervention in other areas such as the Caribbean. 

V. Queen Liliuokalani 

A. Queen Liliuokalani was the ruler of Hawaii at this time. 

B. She called for a new constitution and wanted to give power back to the Hawaiians and away from the wealthy businessmen. 

C. U.S. businessmen wanted to overthrow her. 

D. She was removed from power in 1893. 

E. Hawaii was annexed in 1898. 

VI. Not the End 

A. Though the United States was able to acquire Alaska and Hawaii, this was not the end of American imperialism, rather it was only the beginning. 

1. Wars and other interventions will lead to American expansion into other parts of the world. 

B. Historians have viewed Manifest Destiny in a variety of ways, but currently, it is being viewed through the lens of race relations. 

Leopold and the Scramble 

I. The Scramble for Africa (1870-1890) 

A. Why not earlier? 

1. Europeans avoided colonizing Africa for a few reasons: 

a) The diseases they had not built immunity to. 

b) The fact that there were many groups that they were unfamiliar 

with and could offer resistance they were not prepared for 

c) The lack of technology necessary to traverse Africa and deal with 

the resistance whether from humans or nature. 

B. What changed? 

1. Prior to the 1800s, most of Africa was unknown to Europeans, who only explored ports along the coast where they traded good (slaves) 

2. Europeans had been kept out of the interior of Africa by the difficult 

geography, tropical diseases, and resistance by Africans. 

3. New medical advances and river steamships allowed Europeans to begin exploring, and they started along the major rivers—Nile, Congo, Niger. 

II. King Leopold II of Belgium 

A. King Leopold laid personal claim to the Congo Free State- he owned as an individual, rather than Belgium as a country 

B. He exploited the Congo in every way possible—both the natural resources (copper, rubber, ivory) and the people 

C. Natives who did not work fast enough/meet production quotas were mutilated, beaten, or slaughtered. 

D. It is estimated that around 10 million Congolese were killed under Leopold’s rule

III. European nations’ response 

A. The Berlin Conference 1884-1885 

1. Leopold established the Congo Free State as his own personal colony, not in the name of Belgium. 

2. As such, he made explicit laws that forbade foreign groups (except the ones that paid) access to the resources and market established in the 

Congo Free State. 

3. This led the European powers to discuss how to proceed going forward with the “unclaimed” Africa. 

4. Europeans would meet in 1884 in Berlin to discuss how Africa would be colonized. 

a) No Africans were invited. 

IV. The “Scramble for Africa” 

A. 1885 = the Berlin Conference = Several European nations met in Berlin to decide how to divide up Africa 

1. Peaceful negotiations made between the European powers that officially decided “who got what” 

V. What was laid out? 

A. Open up trade routes along the Niger and Congo Rivers 

B. Suppress the internal slave trade that still existed 

C. Place a ban on the importation of guns into Africa 

D. Establish rules for colonizing territories in Africa. 

VI. The borders that were established for many African nations during the late 1800’s were based on 

A. Geographic barriers 

B. Easy access to natural resources 

C. Territorial claims of colonial rulers 

1. The claims were very arbitrary and did not take into account the map on the following slide. 

VII. European colonial policies contradicted their own values and practices at home A. European Nations 

1. Becoming more democratic 

2. Swept up in nationalism 

3. Christian and Enlightenment idea of human equality 

4. Industrialization and modernization 

B. European Colonies 

1. Were mostly dictatorships (used to create order and stability) 

2. Toal opposite of national independence 

3. Racial divisions, ranked racial classifications, etc. 

4. Modernization discouraged because Europeans did not want to

modernization to cause opposition to colonial rule 

African Resistance & South Africa 

I. The French in Africa 

A. The French would take control of Algeria in 1830 using piracy as an excuse to do so. 

B. The French, with the permission of Great Britain would add Tunisia as well. C. Morocco would be a disputed territory until the British and French manage to engineer a deal where the French acquire help in gaining Morocco in exchange for Sudan. 

II. The British in Africa 

A. The British practically held all of the Eastern portion of Africa. 

B. lThey held practically a direct link (except Sudan initially) from Egypt to the Cape of Good Hope. 

C. lThey held scattered territories in Western Africa. 

III. Britain in South Africa 

A. The British sought to gain complete control of their South African acquisitions. 1. The Boers (dutch farmers), refused to leave South Africa and mounted a resistance against the British, but not before having to fight the Zulu 

(African tribe in South Africa). 

2. With the help of the British, the Boers were able to defeat the Zulu and created the Orange Free State and Transvaal. 

B. Upon the discovery of diamonds and gold within the Boer states, Cecil Rhodes (a gold and diamond industry developer) pleaded to the British to remove the Boers. IV. Cecil Rhodes: the push towards war 

A. Founded De Beers Diamond Company 

B. Attempted to gain control over much of Southern Africa 

C. Founded Rhodesia 

D. Encouraged the British to move forward and take over the Boer portion of South Africa. 

V. The Curious Case of South Africa 

A. 1600s: Dutch farmers known as Boers settled in southern Africa in Cape Colony. B. 1700s: Dutch herders and ivory hunters began to move north. The British then acquired Cape Colony in the early 1800s. 

VI. The Anglo-Boer War 

A. 1800s: the discovery of gold and diamonds in the northern Boer territory set off the Anglo-Boer war. 

B. The British won 

VII. South Africa: The Zulus 

A. In the 1800s in southern Africa, an African leader named Shaka Zulu conquered and united tribes to form the Zulu nation.

B. The Zulus were skilled and organized fighters. Shaka used his power and fought against European slave traders and ivory hunters. 

VIII. The Anglo-Zulu War 

A. In 1879 The Zulus came into conflict with the British 

B. Results: 

1. Zulu force of some 20,000 warriors attacked the British main column 

consisting of about 1,800 British, colonial and native troops 

2. Even though the British had a technological advantage, the Zulu were able to overwhelm and defeat the British! 

a) However, it was not long before the superior weaponry of the 

British overtook the Zulus at the battle of Rorke’s Drift. 

IX. Independent Ethiopia 

A. The Ethiopians kept their freedom through a successful military resistance. Emperor Menelik II modernized the army, along with roads, bridges, and schools. B. When the Italians invaded they were defeated so badly by Menelik that no other Europeans tried to take Ethiopia. 

X. Effects of Imperialism 

A. Positive Results 

1. Unified national states created 

2. Improved medical care, sanitation, and nutrition 

3. Increased agricultural production 

4. Improved transportation and communication facilities 

5. Expanded educational opportunities 

B. Negative results 

1. Encouraged tribal wars by creating artificial borders 

2. Created population explosion → famine 

3. Produced cash crops needed by Europeans, and not food for Africans 

4. Exploited natural resources: minerals, lumber, rubber, human rights. 

5. Downgraded traditional African culture → westernization 

Britain in Australia 

I. The British 

A. Captain James Cook - 1^stto survey Australia’s coast in 1770 

B. made way through coral reefs to reach mainland 

C. Ignored the Aborigines living there & claimed the land for England 

D. Cook named the area New South Wales 

II. Why would the British want this? 

A. Prisoners as Colonists 

1. American Revolution forced the British to stop sending prisoners to 

Georgia (used as a prison colony at the time) 

2. Great Britain had to start looking for another place to send its prisoners…

3. Australia seemed like a good choice: no chance of escape, no colonies around it, and very few indigenous people lived there. 

4. 1788—FIRST FLEET 

a) British prisoners (debtors) settled in Australia from Britain to work 

out their sentence 

5. Early Prison Settlement: 

a) Built roads and towns 

b) When they completed their sentence some returned to Britain, but 

most stayed 

6. New South Wales 

a) 1788 to 1832: New South Wales was officially a prison colony 

consisting mainly of convicts, marines (guards), and their families 

B. Sheep Introduced 

1. Introduced in 1805 by a retired British navy captain Became one of 

Australia's biggest exports 

C. GOLD 

1. In 1851, a 'grain of gold‘ was found in a waterhole. 

2. This set off a gold rush. 

D. Geographic Location 

1. By 1868, many free immigrants were settling there. They built businesses, trading posts, farms, etc. 

2. Great Britain saw that Australia was a good location to base its navy in the South Pacific Ocean. Its location would make it possible for British ships to make repairs & get supplies 

III. The Australian Aborigine 

A. The Aboriginal people of Australia had been isolated from all other humans for thousands of years. 

B. They were still hunter-gatherers and the British and settlers thought of them as little more than animals 

IV. Effects of Settlers on Aborigines 

A. lands were taken away by settlers 

B. put up little resistance 

C. weakened by western diseases and breakdown of tribal ties 

V. Aborigines 1800-1900’s 

A. Aborigines went through stages of being conquered through an 'invasion' and taking of their lands. 

B. European settlers often separated Aborigines from society 

C. Late 1800’s: remnants of the tribes in the settled areas were moved onto Reserves D. They were forbidden from teaching their children their language and customs. VI. Stolen Generations

A. Many Indigenous children were forcibly taken away from their families in the name of assimilation during the 1950s and 1960s. These children are known as the “Stolen Generations”. 

B. They were brought up in institutions or fostered to non-Indigenous families. This removal was official government policy in Australia until 1969 

C. By the 1980’s community groups spoke out that governments' social welfare practices were discriminatory against Indigenous people. 

D. Aboriginal children who were forced away from their families to stamp their culture out of them. 

E. Many from the Lost Generation don’t know what tribe they are from or even who their parents are. 

VII. Official Apology 

A. On February 13, 2008 Prime Minister Kevin Rudd apologized to Australia’s Indigenous people for the laws and policies that inflicted profound grief, suffering and loss. 

VIII. Australia Today 

A. 1986: Australia Act - all legal ties with the British Empire were severed B. Today, Australia is a parliamentary democracy with Elizabeth II as Queen. WWI: Causes 

I. Cause 1: Militarism 

A. As tensions grew, armies and reserves were growing 

B. Countries used two means to gain more soldiers: 

1. Conscription → drafted men out of the civilian ranks 

2. Rotation in service → soldiers were given leave and replaced by new 

trainees à could be called back during wartime 

C. The Germans also tried to strengthen their navy and followed the model used by the Americans 

1. Noticed that the ability to blockade efficiently was the key to modern 

warfare 

2. Led to the improvement of the British royal navy 

II. The Arms Race begins 

A. The rapid improvement of military technology and the increase of the size of armies and weapons led to an arms race between the major nations of Europe. B. Arms race → rapid expansion of military might in response to the actions of another country. 

III. Cause 2: Alliances 

A. After beating the French in the Franco-Prussian War, Bismarck believed that the French would seek revenge and made alliances with other countries to protect Germany 

1. Triple Alliance was formed in 1882 which was composed of

Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Germany 

B. Germany also signed the Reinsurance Treaty with Russia to protect themselves further 

1. Alliances were viewed as unreliable → Russian cooperation with 

Austria-Hungary could not be expected during wartime due to competing interests in the Balkans 

C. William II would end the Reinsurance Treaty in 1890. 

D. Russia would join with the French after being abandoned by the Germans (1894) 1. Set up the possibility of a two-front war with France on one side and 

Russia on the other 

E. France would make an agreement with the British called the ‘Entente Cordiale’ 1. France and Britain had been making agreements with each other for years and still had tensions prior but in 1904, due to the growing power of other countries and the issues arising in the Balkans, they allied together. 

a) Was based off of acknowledgement of the acquisitions of each in 

Africa and Southeast Asia. 

b) Was done reluctantly for the most part but necessary as both only 

had one ally apiece in distant areas (France with Russia and Britain 

with Japan (1902)). 

IV. The Triple Alliance 

A. It is important to note before moving forward that these treaties or agreements are intended to protect not only one from the other but from outside forces. 

B. A key point: An attack on one is an attack on ALL. 

V. A Push - The First Moroccan Crisis 

A. Germany, in an attempt to call France’s control of Morocco into question, met with the Sultan of Morocco 

1. This led to the movement of troops in the Mediterranean by both countries (nothing ended up happening) 

2. This fortified the need to create strong alliances to protect against future issues that could threaten balance of power in Europe. 

B. The Triple Entente 

1. Russia, in conjunction with Britain and France formed an alliance to rival that of the Triple Alliance. 

a) This alliance was built since there was a Franco-Russian alliance 

and an Anglo-Russian alliance (built in 1907). 

b) This was not a mutual defense alliance but rather an informal 

alliance intended to build a strong coalition in the case of conflict. 

(1) This forced a Russo-Japanese alliance shortly afterward to 

create the coalition that later would become the Allied 

Powers

VI. Cause #3: Imperialism 

A. Competing interests in Africa led to alliances 

1. After all the territories outside of Africa were colonized or influenced, 

battles raged between European countries over control of various African 

territories to consolidate their possessions 

a) For example, Britain tried to create a Cape to Cairo connection and 

the Entente Cordiale solidified that 

b) France tried to consolidate control of West Africa, hence why 

Morocco was so important. 

B. British and the French fought in the Sudan and came to a peaceful resolution leading to the British defending the French when they were attacked in Morocco by the Germans 

VII. Africa and the source of conflict 

A. The divisions in Africa also helped push militarism and nationalism as groups became more aggressive in attempts to take more territory and defend national pride. 

VIII. The Impact of the Russo-Japanese War 

A. The Russo-Japanese War: (1904 – 1905) Japan and Russia fought for control of Manchuria in NE China. 

B. U.S. President Theodore Roosevelt mediated peace at Portsmouth, New Hampshire. Japan won and became the first non-Western world power to seek imperial expansion. 

1. Created a situation where Russia had to look elsewhere for colonial 

expansion 

IX. Cause #4: Nationalism 

A. The Balkans served as a powder keg in Europe 

1. Pan-Slavism became a rallying cry as groups sought to unite Slavic 

peoples under the rule of other countries, namely Austria-Hungary 

B. Russia supported the movement in the hope of acquiring a sphere of influence there. 

1. Balkan Wars would break out leading to many countries joining the 

Ottoman Empire only to have them step aside leaving Austria-Hungary as the only obstacle left 

X. The Balkan Powder Keg 

A. The Ottoman Empire struggled to retain control of the Balkan territories. 1. The breakout of the Balkan Wars, two wars fought between the Balkan states and the Ottomans, then Bulgaria severely weakened the Ottoman 

Empire. 

XI. The Start of the War 

A. Austria-Hungary gave Serbia an ultimatum: Serbia must let Austro-Hungarian

officials into the country to stop all violent, nationalist movements, and Serbia must let Austro-Hungarian officials investigate the assassination. Serbia said: NO B. July 28, 1914 = Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia 

C. Both countries started mobilization = preparing the military for war. 

XII. Other Factors 

A. There are other factors that need to be taken into account as to why World War I actually happened: 

1. Economic Competition (which leaks into militarism) 

a) Germany began to produce steel at an immense rate and saw its 

annual growth exceed that of Britain in many cases (which leaks 

into nationalism and the arms race). 

2. International Disquiet and lack of oversight 

a) The general lack of any international body to mediate disputes 

allowed many of these territorial issues to persist. 

b) The Concert of Europe failed miserably and even the construction 

of the Hague International Tribunal (had no real power, disputes 

and mediation were all voluntary). 

XIII. Important events 

A. The “blank check” (July 5, 1914) 

1. Germany pledged to give financial support to Austria-Hungary and issued them a “blank check”. 

2. It is believed that this financial support encouraged Austria-Hungary to push forward with war since they would not have entered the war without 

German support. 

3. The check serves as Germany’s blessing to “move at once” 

4. Wilhelm II believed the war would last 5-6 weeks max. 

B. Russian aggression in the Balkans (Pan-Slavism) 

1. 1st to mobilize in the war, immediately intended to protect the Slavic 

peoples (motives are apparent here) 

2. Though 1st to mobilize, wildly unprepared which factored into Germany’s decision to push Austria-Hungary, situation was already ripe for revolution C. Serbian actions 

1. Inability to control the military (pushing for defense against 

Austria-Hungary) 

2. The assassination itself showed that there was a lack of control. 

WWI: Conflict 

I. What was it like? Trenches 

A. Trench warfare became prevalent due to the advent of new weaponry. 

1. Created gaps between trenches known as no man’s land (area you are most likely to die in)

B. The war was fought in one mile increments. 

1. This made the war drag on as victories only led to small gains. 

II. More than a “European Conflict” 

A. Who was involved? 

1. Australia & New Zealand 

2. Japan (beginning of war) 

3. British 

4. India 

5. France 

6. Russia 

7. Ottoman Empire (Turks) 

8. Germany 

9. Bulgaria 

III. War Affects the World 

A. Germany's Schlieffen Plan was intended to prevent a two-front war (fighting on two different sides). Instead, it failed to carry out Germany's main goal: finishing off France quickly. 

1. Because Germany entered into neutral Belgium, Britain was forced to declare war on Germany. 

2. This action also created the conditions that were to be considered "the Western Front." 

B. After the war dragged on, many European powers looked to outside help IV. The Gallipoli Campaign 

A. Allies Strategy= attack an Ottoman region (Dardanelles) 

1. It would open the Allies to attack Constantinople 

B. Result: Both attacked, but it turned into another stalemate, both dug trenches 1. Allies gave up, CENTRAL powers WON 

V. Battles in Africa & Asia 

A. Where did the Allies attack? 

1. English & French attacked Germany’s colonies in Africa 

2. Japan attacked Germany’s colonies in the Pacific 

3. Who helped? 

a) Allies recruited laborers (mostly European colonial subjects) from 

India, South Africa, Senegal, Egypt, Algeria and Indochina 

4. Some wanted to help their colonial leaders, some didn’t (Ie: Gandhi who supported helping) 

VI. America Joins the Fight (1/3) 

A. By 1917, Germany intensified the submarine war effort 

1. Unrestricted submarine warfare= Germany policy to destroy any ship around Britain WITHOUT warning

2. United States had been adamant about maintaining the open seas since they were not involved in the war 

B. Reason #1 to Join War: Lusitania 

1. British passenger ship sunk by German U-boat 

a) 1,198 died, including 128 Americans 

C. Lusitania- Sunk in 18 Minutes 

VII. America Joins the Fight (2/3) 

A. Result → American public was outraged 

1. Wilson protested, and Germany stopped attacking neutral ships, but started again soon after (sinking 3 other American ships) 

B. Reason 2 to Join War: Zimmermann Note 

1. telegram written from Germany’s foreign secretary to Mexico promising it would help Mexico “reconquer” land lost to Americans if it would enter 

the war effort 

VIII. America Joins the Fight (3/3) 

A. Reason #3 to Join War: Common Ancestry & Bond 

1. Large portion of American supported the Allies because of a common 

language, culture, democratic ideals and legal system 

B. April 2, 1917- Wilson declared war on Germany 

IX. War on the Home Front 

A. Governments Wage Total War 

1. Total War= countries devote all their resources to the war effort 

2. Governments took control of factories and the economy 

3. Unemployment has almost disappeared 

B. Many nations kept these powers after the war was over seeing it as a necessity (the coronavirus was one such instance where this was used) 

X. Rationing 

A. Governments began limiting of the amounts of goods people can buy 

B. Rationing was often imposed by governments during wartime, when goods are in short supply 

1. Covered goods, from butter to shoe leather 

XI. Propaganda 

A. Countries engaged in efforts to ensure support from their citizens 

B. Groups engaged in propaganda efforts to do this 

1. Propaganda → one-sided information designed to persuade, to keep up moral and support for the war 

XII. Women & the War 

A. Women replaced men in factories, offices and shops 

B. Helped troops in the fields 

C. Became nurses and helped support troops in the field

XIII. The Allies Win the War 

A. Russia Withdraws 

1. Czar Nicholas mixed with civil unrest 

2. By 1917, nearly 5.5 million Russian soldiers has been wounded, killed or taken prisoner 

3. Communist Revolution 

4. By March 1918, Germany and Russia signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk XIV. The Central Powers Collapse 

A. Germany could not send all his forces to the Western Front 

B. Germany now attacked France, but Germany’s army had weakened 

C. With the arrival of more American troops, the Central Powers could not keep up D. Surrenders → Ottoman Turk → Austria-Hungary → Germany 

E. Armistice= agreement to stop fighting (signed on 11/11/1918) 

XV. The Legacy of the War 

A. New technologies 

B. War on a global scale 

C. 8.5 soldiers died, 21 million were wounded 

D. Devastated the economy of Europe (total cost of war- $338 billion) 

XVI. New Weapons 

A. First large scale use of weapons 

1. Machine gun 

2. Tanks 

3. Airplane (first used for scouting, then for early air combats, by the end of the war planes could carry heavy bombs loads) 

4. Poison gas & gas masks 

5. Observation balloons 

XVII. War Introduces New Hazards 

A. Men surrounded by filth, lice, rats and polluted water that caused dysentery (disease of intestines) 

B. Inhaled poison gas and smelled decaying bodies 

C. Lack of sleep 

D. “Shell Shock” 

E. Trench Mouth (infection of gums and throat) 

F. Trench foot- caused by standing in wet trenches for long periods of time 1. Toes turn red or blue 

2. Then, they become numb 

3. Start to rot 

4. Solution: Amputate the toes and sometimes the entire foot 

XVIII. Final Toll 

A. WW1 was the bloodiest war up to that time