Ch. 9 AP Psych

Here are the terms you requested from Myers’ Psychology for AP, Second Edition (Chapter 9: Developmental Psychology):

Developmental Psychology (p. 462):
- Definition: The study of physical, cognitive, and social changes throughout the life span.
- Example: Studying how children develop language skills or how older adults experience cognitive decline.
Zygote (p. 466):
- Definition: The fertilized egg, which enters a 2-week period of rapid cell division and develops into an embryo.
- Example: When sperm fertilizes an egg, the result is a zygote.
Embryo (p. 466):
- Definition: The developing human organism from about 2 weeks after fertilization through the second month.
- Example: By the end of the 8th week, an embryo has developed basic structures like a heart and brain.
Fetus (p. 466):
- Definition: The developing human organism from 9 weeks after conception to birth.
- Example: At 6 months, the fetus begins to respond to sound.
Teratogens (p. 467):
- Definition: Harmful agents (such as chemicals or viruses) that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm.
- Example: Alcohol or drugs like cocaine can be teratogens that cause birth defects.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) (p. 467):
- Definition: Physical and cognitive abnormalities in children caused by a pregnant woman’s heavy drinking.
- Example: A child born with FAS might have a small head and facial abnormalities.
Habituation (p. 468):
- Definition: A decrease in response to a stimulus after repeated exposure to it.
- Example: A baby might initially cry at a loud sound but stop after hearing it many times.
Maturation (p. 471):
- Definition: Biological growth processes that enable orderly changes in behavior, relatively uninfluenced by experience.
- Example: Infants gradually gain the ability to crawl and walk as they mature.
Cognition (p. 476):
- Definition: All the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
- Example: Problem-solving, language understanding, and decision-making are all aspects of cognition.
Schema (p. 477):
- Definition: A concept or framework that organizes and interprets information.
- Example: A child has a schema for a dog, which might include features like "four legs" and "fur."
Assimilation (p. 477):
- Definition: Interpreting new experiences in terms of existing schemas.
- Example: A child sees a new type of dog and incorporates it into their schema for dogs.
Accommodation (p. 477):
- Definition: Adapting one’s current understandings (schemas) to incorporate new information.
- Example: When a child learns that a cat is not a dog, they adjust their schema of animals.
Sensorimotor Stage (p. 478):
- Definition: In Piaget's theory, the stage (from birth to about 2 years) during which infants know the world mostly in terms of their sensory impressions and motor activities.
- Example: An infant explores objects by grasping and putting them in their mouth.
Object Permanence (p. 478):
- Definition: The awareness that things continue to exist even when not perceived.
- Example: If you hide a toy under a blanket, a baby who has developed object permanence will search for it.
Preoperational Stage (p. 479):
- Definition: In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 2 to 7 years) during which children learn to use language but cannot yet perform the mental operations of concrete logic.
- Example: A child may believe that a taller glass holds more liquid than a shorter one, even if both hold the same amount.
Conservation (p. 479):
- Definition: The principle (which Piaget believed to be a part of concrete operational reasoning) that properties such as mass, volume, and number remain the same despite changes in the form of objects.
- Example: If you pour liquid from a wide glass into a tall, thin glass, a child who understands conservation knows the amount of liquid is still the same.
Egocentrism (p. 479):
- Definition: In Piaget’s theory, the difficulty that preoperational children have in considering another's viewpoint.
- Example: A child may think that if they cannot see someone, then that person cannot see them.
Theory of Mind (p. 480):
- Definition: People's ideas about their own and others' mental states—about their feelings, perceptions, and thoughts, and the behaviors these might predict.
- Example: A child with a well-developed theory of mind can understand that other people may have different knowledge than they do.
Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) (p. 481):
- Definition: A disorder that appears in childhood and is marked by deficient communication, social interaction, and understanding of others' states of mind.
- Example: A child with ASD might struggle to engage in reciprocal conversations or interpret social cues.
Concrete Operational Stage (p. 483):
- Definition: In Piaget’s theory, the stage (from about 7 to 11 years) during which children gain the mental operations that enable them to think logically about concrete events.
- Example: Children can now understand mathematical transformations, like addition and subtraction.
Formal Operational Stage (p. 483):
- Definition: In Piaget’s theory, the stage (beginning around age 12) during which people begin to think logically about abstract concepts.
- Example: Adolescents can reason hypothetically about abstract situations, such as considering the possibilities of what might happen in the future.
Stranger Anxiety (p. 488):
- Definition: The fear of strangers that infants commonly display, beginning by about 8 months of age.
- Example: A baby may cry when a stranger tries to hold them.
Attachment (p. 488):
- Definition: An emotional tie with another person, shown in young children by their seeking closeness to the caregiver and showing distress on separation.
- Example: A child may cling to their parent when placed in an unfamiliar environment.
Critical Period (p. 489):
- Definition: An optimal period early in the life of an organism when exposure to certain stimuli or experiences produces normal development.
- Example: The critical period for language development is the first few years of life.
Imprinting (p. 489):
- Definition: The process by which certain animals form strong attachments during an early-life critical period.
- Example: Baby geese imprint on the first moving object they see, usually their mother.
Temperament (p. 490):
- Definition: A person's characteristic emotional reactivity and intensity.
- Example: A child who is easygoing and adapts easily is said to have a flexible temperament.
Basic Trust (p. 492):
- Definition: According to Erik Erikson, a sense that the world is predictable and trustworthy; said to be formed during infancy by appropriate experiences with responsive caregivers.
- Example: A securely attached child feels that their caregiver will provide for their needs.
Self-Concept (p. 495):
- Definition: A sense of one’s identity and personal worth.
- Example: A child who can say “I am a good friend” or “I am smart” is developing a self-concept.
Gender (p. 500):
- Definition: The socially constructed roles and characteristics by which a culture defines male and female.
- Example: In many cultures, being nurturing is considered a "female" trait, while being assertive is considered a "male" trait.
Aggression (p. 501):
- Definition: Any physical or verbal behavior intended to hurt or destroy.
- Example: Punching someone in a fight or calling someone names is an act of aggression.
Gender Role (p. 503):
- Definition: A set of expected behaviors, attitudes, and traits for males or females.
- Example: Traditionally, men might be expected to be the breadwinners, and women might be expected to take care of children.
Role (p. 503):
- Definition: A set of expectations (norms) about a social position, defining how those in the position ought to behave.
- Example: A teacher’s role includes instructing students and managing the classroom.
Gender Identity (p. 504):
- Definition: One's personal sense of being male, female, or something else.
- Example: A person who identifies as male feels a connection to masculinity, while a person identifying as female feels a connection to femininity.
Social Learning Theory (p. 504):
- Definition: The theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished.
- Example: A child who sees others being rewarded for polite behavior may learn to behave politely.
Gender Typing (p. 504):
- Definition: The acquisition of a traditional masculine or feminine role.
- Example: A child who enjoys playing with dolls may be gender-typed as feminine in many cultures.
Transgender (p. 505):
- Definition: A term describing people whose gender identity or expression differs from the sex they were assigned at birth.
- Example: A person born male but identifying as female is considered transgender.
Adolescence (p. 513):
- Definition: The transition period from childhood to adulthood, extending from puberty to independence.
- Example: Adolescence is marked by the onset of puberty and the development of more complex social roles.
Identity (p. 519):
- Definition: Our sense of self; according to Erikson, the adolescent's task is to solidify a sense of identity.
- Example: An adolescent might explore different career paths and relationships before deciding who they are.
Social Identity (p. 519):
- Definition: The “we” aspect of our self-concept; the part of our answer to “Who am I?” that comes from our group memberships.
- Example: A teenager might identify with their school or sports team, contributing to their social identity.
Intimacy (p. 521):
- Definition: In Erikson’s theory, the ability to form close, loving relationships; a primary developmental task in late adolescence and early adulthood.
- Example: A person in their 20s forming a deep, emotionally supportive relationship with a partner.
Emerging Adulthood (p. 523):
- Definition: A period from the late teens to mid-20s, when many in Western cultures are no longer adolescents but have not yet achieved full independence as adults.
- Example: A college student living away from home but still financially supported by their parents.
X Chromosome (p. 526):
- Definition: The sex chromosome found in both men and women. Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one.
- Example: An individual with two X chromosomes is biologically female.
Y Chromosome (p. 526):
- Definition: The sex chromosome found only in males. Males have one Y chromosome and one X chromosome.
- Example: A male inherits his Y chromosome from his father.
Testosterone (p. 526):
- Definition: The most important male sex hormone. Both males and females have it, but the male’s levels are much higher.
- Example: Testosterone triggers the development of male secondary sex characteristics, like facial hair.
Puberty (p. 527):
- Definition: The period of sexual maturation, during which a person becomes capable of reproduction.
- Example: Girls typically begin puberty between ages 8-14, experiencing menstruation and breast development.
Primary Sex Characteristics (p. 527):
- Definition: The body structures (ovaries, testes, and external genitalia) that make sexual reproduction possible.
- Example: A male’s testes and a female’s ovaries are primary sex characteristics.
Secondary Sex Characteristics (p. 527):
- Definition: Non-reproductive sexual traits, such as female breasts and hips, male voice quality, and body hair.
- Example: A female develops breasts, and a male’s voice deepens during puberty.
Menarche (p. 527):
- Definition: The first menstrual period.
- Example: A girl typically experiences menarche around age 12 or 13.
AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome) (p. 529):
- Definition: A life-threatening, sexually transmitted infection caused by the HIV virus that weakens the immune system.
- Example: AIDS can be contracted through unprotected sex or sharing needles.
Sexual Orientation (p. 531):
- Definition: An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one’s own sex (homosexual orientation) or the other sex (heterosexual orientation).
- Example: A person who is attracted to people of the opposite sex is heterosexual, while someone attracted to the same sex is homosexual.
Menopause (p. 540):
- Definition: The time of natural cessation of menstruation; also refers to the biological changes a woman experiences as her ability to reproduce declines.
- Example: A woman typically experiences menopause between ages 45 and 55, marked by the end of her menstrual cycle.
Cross-Sectional Study (p. 543):
- Definition: A study in which people of different ages are compared with one another.
- Example: A researcher might compare the cognitive abilities of children, adults, and elderly people in a cross-sectional study.
Longitudinal Study (p. 543):
- Definition: Research in which the same people are restudied and retested over a long period.
- Example: A researcher might follow a group of children from birth into adulthood to examine long-term effects of early experiences.
Social Clock (p. 544):
- Definition: The culturally preferred timing of social events such as marriage, parenthood, and retirement.
- Example: In some cultures, people are expected to marry in their early 20s, while others may delay marriage until later.