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Unit 3_ Development_ Learning Notes
Page 1: Human Development Overview
Introduction to the study of human development and its relevance.
Page 2: Brain Break
Discussion on why babies are perceived as cute from an evolutionary psychology perspective.
Page 3: Major Developmental Psychology Issues
Nature/Nurture
Influence of genetic inheritance (nature) and life experiences (nurture) on behavior.
Continuity/Stages
Debate on whether development is a gradual, continuous process or occurs in distinct stages.
Stability/Change
Exploration of whether early personality traits are stable throughout life or subject to change as individuals age.
Page 4: Reflections on Developmental Issues
Approach of researchers who view development as gradual vs. those who see it as stage-based.
Key figures: Piaget, Kohlberg, and Erikson known for their stage theories.
Page 5: Lifelong Development
Importance of balancing stability and change throughout life.
Understanding that personality stabilizes but traits can evolve over time.
Page 6: Prenatal Development and Newborns
Conception occurs when a sperm cell penetrates an egg, resulting in a fertilized cell.
Page 7: Stages of Prenatal Development
1. Germinal Stage (First 2 weeks)
Zygote forms and begins diversification of cells.
2. Embryonic Stage (2 weeks to 2 months)
Formation of vital organs and systems begins at 14 days post-conception, marked by the term embryo.
Page 8: Fetal Stage of Development
Lasts from 2 months until birth.
Characterized by significant physical development, movement capabilities, and brain cell multiplication.
Age of viability identified between 22-26 weeks.
Teratogens: substances harmful to fetal development.
Page 9: Environmental Factors in Prenatal Development
Maternal Nutrition: Malnutrition can lead to serious health risks for the infant.
Maternal Drug Use: Negative impacts stemming from the use of alcohol and drugs during pregnancy, including Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS).
Page 10: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Symptoms of FAS:
Growth retardation, characteristic facial features (e.g., small eyes, short nose), and central nervous system problems leading to various developmental issues.
Page 11: Additional Environmental Factors
Maternal Illness
Impact of diseases such as Rubella, syphilis, and severe influenza on prenatal development.
Importance of Prenatal Healthcare
Emphasizes the necessity for guidance and healthcare during pregnancy.
Page 12: Newborn Screenings and Testing
PKU
Rare disorder affecting amino acid metabolism, can cause brain damage without proper management.
APGAR Test
Assessment method to evaluate newborn health immediately after birth, covering skin color, pulse, reflexes, muscle tone, and breathing.
Sudden Infant Death Syndrome (SIDS)
Unexplained infant death within the first year.
Habituation
Decrease in responsiveness following repeated stimulation.
Page 13: The Competent Newborn
Infants possess reflexes crucial for survival (e.g., rooting reflex for feeding).
Key Reflexes:
Sucking, gripping, toe curling, and startle (Moro) reflexes.
Page 14: Importance of Crying
Infants' cries serve as signals for parents to provide nourishment and comfort.
Page 15: Infant Temperament
Research by Thomas, Chess, and Birch (1970)
Classification of infants into temperamental styles established by 2-3 months:
1. Easy (40%)
Positive mood, adaptable.
2. Slow-to-warm-up (15%)
Cautious, low activity, somewhat negative.
3. Difficult (10%)
High activity, frequent crying, irregular routines.
4. Mixed temperament (35%)
Page 16: Temperament Styles by Kagan & Snidman
Inhibited vs. Uninhibited Temperament:
Inhibited (15-20%): Wary of strangers, passive.
Uninhibited (25-30%): Spontaneously approach novel situations.
Page 17: Maturation
Development unfolds based on genetic instructions leading to sequence-based bodily and mental functions (e.g., standing before walking).
Page 18: Motor Development in Childhood
Basic Principles:
Cephalocaudal Trend:
Control develops from head to toe.
Proximodistal Trend:
Control develops from the center outwards.
Page 19: Developmental Sequence
Cephalocaudal: head-to-tail development prioritized.
Proximodistal: torso control precedes limb control.
Page 20: Sequence of Motor Skills
Infants initially roll over then progress to sitting, crawling, and walking, largely unaffected by experience.
Page 21: Infant Memory and Consciousness
Conscious memory begins around age 3-3.5.
Infants as young as 3 months can form associations (e.g., kicking to move objects).
Page 22: Cognitive Development
Piaget's view: Intellectual growth driven by biological maturation intertwined with environmental experiences.
Page 23: Overview of Piaget’s Theory
Piaget's theories emphasize the importance of biological development and mistakes in shaping cognitive capabilities.
Page 24: Stage 1: Sensorimotor Stage (Birth to 2 Years)
Exploration through senses and actions.
Understanding object permanence emerges post-6 months.
Page 25: Depth Perception - Visual Cliff Experiment
Demonstrated ability to perceive depth when infants can crawl, guided by caregivers.
Page 26: Stage 2: Preoperational Stage (Ages 2-6/7)
Children begin to use words and images, leading to symbolic thinking but are unable to perform mental operations.
Page 27: Characteristics of the Preoperational Stage
Major Concepts:
Centration: Focusing on one aspect of a situation.
Egocentrism: Difficulty seeing perspectives other than their own.
Inability to grasp Conservation.
Emergence of Symbolic Representation.
Engagement in Pretend Play.
Belief in Animism (inanimate objects have feelings).
Page 28: Egocentrism in Children
Illustration of egocentrism through an example with a child who cannot share perspective.
Page 29: Concept of Conservation
Children in the preoperational stage fail to understand that changing an object's appearance does not change its amount or volume.
Page 30: Stage 3: Concrete Operational Stage (Ages 7-11)
Critical thinking skills develop; beginning to grasp conservation concepts and logical thinking with concrete material.
Page 31: Stage 4: Formal Operational Stage (Ages 12 and up)
Abstract thinking emerges; development of systematic reasoning and problem-solving capabilities.
Page 32: Critique of Piaget’s Theory
Recent research suggests:
Development is continuous.
Children show mental abilities earlier than previously thought.
Formal logic is less central to cognition than Piaget proposed.
Page 33: Vygotsky’s Social Development Theory
Emphasizes social interaction's role in cognitive development.
Differentiates between individual achievements and socially facilitated learning in the Zone of Proximal Development.
Page 34: Social Development - Anxiety in Children
Stranger Anxiety:
Develops around 8 months; children become wary of unfamiliar faces.
Separation Anxiety:
Peaks at 18 months; varies among children.
Page 35: Origins of Attachment
Harlow's research indicated that emotional bonds are formed through physical contact rather than nourishment.
Page 36: Imprinting in Animals
Konrad Lorenz's findings on attachment through imprinting in certain species (e.g., goslings).
Page 37: Types of Attachment
Secure attachment: Children explore freely but show distress when separated from caregivers.
Insecure attachment: Children show anxiety and avoid exploration.
Page 38: Secure Attachment Behavior
Reflects responsiveness of caregivers creating a sense of security in children.
Page 39: Insecure Attachment
Harlow's monkey studies show the impact of surrogate contact on infant anxiety.
Page 40: Peaks of Separation Anxiety
Peaks typically occur around 13-18 months regardless of the child’s care situation (home/daycare).
Page 41: Effects of Attachment Deprivation
Case study (Genie) illustrating developmental impact when attachment forms are disrupted.
Page 42: Early Emotional Development
Mary Ainsworth’s Research:
Secure: Positive relationship dynamics.
Anxious-Ambivalent: Anxiety in closeness and distress upon separation.
Avoidant: Lack of distress when separated; minimized contact.
Page 43: Parenting Styles - Baumrind's Research
Types of Parenting Styles:
Authoritarian: Strict, little room for autonomy.
Authoritative: Balances independence with limits.
Permissive: Little control over behavior.
Neglectful: Lack of involvement in child's life.
Page 44: Summary of Parenting Styles
Authoritarian, permissive, authoritative, and neglectful categorized by their dynamics.
Page 45: Adolescence and Development
Shift in understanding that traits can evolve and are shaped through ongoing development.
Adolescence as a transition into adulthood.
Page 46: Physical Development in Adolescence
Initiation of puberty, occurring earlier in girls than boys, affecting growth patterns.
Page 47: Primary Sexual Characteristics Development
Rapid development of reproductive organs and external genitalia during puberty.
Page 48: Secondary Sexual Characteristics Development
Development of non-reproductive traits associated with gender during puberty.
Page 49: Brain Development During Adolescence
Neuronal connections are maximized pre-puberty but start to be pruned during adolescence.
Page 50: Prefrontal Cortex Development
Continues to develop throughout adolescence, leading to impulsive behaviors as emotional systems mature quicker than logical reasoning.
Page 51: Cognitive Development in Adolescents
Enhancements in social understanding and reasoning capabilities; critique of societal norms and values.
Page 52: Developing Reasoning Power
Adolescents’ potential to handle abstract concepts and moral dilemmas matures during this stage.
Page 53: Development of Morality
Kohlberg's Stages:
Investigated moral reasoning using dilemmas such as the Heinz Dilemma to identify stages of moral development.
Page 54: Heinz Dilemma Example
Ethical dilemma illustrating conflict between legality and moral duty poses deep moral questions.
Page 55: Basic Levels of Moral Thinking
Levels:
Preconventional Morality: Focus on consequences.
Conventional Morality: Adherence to laws and rules.
Postconventional Morality: Ethical principles triumph over laws.
Page 56: Detailed Stages of Moral Development
A breakdown of moral reasoning from obedience to complex ethical considerations.
Page 57: Nuances in Morality
Understanding that moral determination evolves from self-interest to deeper ethical principles over time.
Page 58: Maturity in Moral Thinking
Development leads individuals to become more altruistic and empathetic through cognitive growth.
Differences in moral reasoning between genders discussed by Carol Gilligan.
Page 59: Erikson’s Psychosocial Development
Stages of Psychosocial Development
Identity development through social crises across the lifespan, impacting personality formation.
Page 60: Erikson vs. Freud
Contrasting views on personality formation; Erikson sees continued development throughout life unlike Freud's childhood focus.
Page 61: Erikson's Eight Stages Summary
Identification of eight total psychosocial crises shaping personality across different life stages.
Page 62: Childhood Stages Summary
Trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame, and industry vs. inferiority as core childhood struggles.
Page 63: Understanding Trust
Trust vs. mistrust: importance of meeting needs for building trust in infancy.
Page 64: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Encouraging self-sufficiency while avoiding excessive control leads to a sense of autonomy.
Page 65: Initiative vs. Guilt
Encouraging initiative can lead to independence, but overbearing parenting can hinder this process leading to guilt.
Page 66: Industry vs. Inferiority
Successful socialization in childhood leads to feelings of competence; failure breeds feelings of inferiority.
Page 67: Identity vs. Role Confusion in Adolescence
Exploration of roles and identities crucial for successful identity formation in adolescence.
Page 68: Adult Psychosocial Crises
Intimacy vs. isolation, generativity vs. stagnation, and integrity vs. despair as critical adult challenges.
Page 69: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Exploration of relationship dynamics and the pressures of societal timing in forming close relationships during young adulthood.
Page 70: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Focus on contributing to society and shaping future generations during middle adulthood.
Page 71: Integrity vs. Despair in Later Life
Reflection on life achievements leading to feelings of fulfillment or regret in later years.
Page 72: Identity Formation in Western Cultures
Adolescents experiment with different identities leading to stable personal identities.
Page 73: The Search for Identity - Marcia's Identity Statuses
Four Identity Statues:
Foreclosure: Premature commitment.
Moratorium: Delayed commitments.
Identity Diffusion: Lack of direction.
Identity Achievement: Successful self-discovery.
Page 74: Identity Development Framework
Overview of the presence and absence of identity crisis leading to different identity statuses.
Page 75: Understanding Gender Roles
The influence of gender stereotypes and expectations on individual behavior across cultures.
Page 76: Definition of Gender Roles
Behaviors deemed appropriate for each sex established by society; shapes individual actions.
Page 77: Sandra Bem's Research on Gender
Development of gender roles through socialization and reinforcement.
Androgyny: Combination of masculine and feminine traits in individuals.
Page 78: Defining Adulthood
Differentiating stages in adulthood is less clear-cut than in childhood and adolescence.
Page 79: Physical Development in Adulthood
Peak physical performance around 20 years; gradual decline thereafter.
Page 80: Middle Adulthood Changes
Notable decreases in physical capabilities, hormonal changes, and onset of menopause in women.
Page 81: Sensory Declines in Old Age
Notable decreases in sensory perception post-70 years; motor skills decline as well.
Page 82: Motor Abilities in Older Age
Decline in motor skills and higher risks of fatal accidents as people age.
Page 83: Memory in Aging
Recognition memory remains stable; meaningful information tends to be recalled better.
Page 84: Intelligence Through Aging
Distinctions between fluid intelligence (declines with age) and crystallized intelligence (remains steady or increases).
Page 85: Cognitive Abilities with Age
Acknowledgment of varying cognitive abilities and their evolution with age.
Page 86: Language Acquisition in Children
The importance of language development stages in childhood.
Page 87: Interesting Language Facts
Statistics on language prevalence and diversity across the globe.
Page 88: Languages Across the World
Distribution of languages among continents, highlighting linguistic diversity.
Page 89: Theories of Language Acquisition
Two Main Theories:
Innateness Theory: Chomsky’s idea that humans have inborn capacities for language.
Operant Learning: Skinner's perspective emphasizing reinforcement in language learning.
Page 90: Language Development Stages
Early stages include babbling, one-word utterances, and grammatical development.
Page 91: Linguistic Theories
Linguistic Determinism and Relativity:
The impact of language structures on thought processes.
Page 92: Rules of Grammar
Overregularization:
Misapplication of grammar rules (e.g., "hitted").
Phonemes and Morphemes:
Understanding basic language units and their functions.
Page 93: Language Skills Beyond Grammar
Importance of social scripts, body language, and abstract meanings in communication.
Page 94: Challenges in Language Learning
Optimal language acquisition occurs before age 10; considerations for educational implications.
Example of Genie as a case study for language learning potential in later life.
Page 95: Explaining Language Development
Biographical account on how one would explain the stages and principles of language acquisition.
Page 96: Understanding Learning Processes
Learning defined as a behavioral change resulting from experiences; classical conditioning introduced.
Page 97: Associative Learning
Linking two closely occurring events as a basis for behavioral habits.
Page 98: Classical Conditioning Concept
Learned behavior occurs through paired stimuli; introduction of Pavlov’s foundational research.
Page 99: Key Terms in Classical Conditioning
Important Definitions:
Conditioned/Unconditioned: Learned vs. unlearned responses.
Neutral Stimulus: A stimulus that elicits no response initially.
Page 100: Classical Conditioning Process
Details the mechanism of classical conditioning through stimulus associations.
Page 101: Classical Conditioning Basics
Overview of unconditioned and conditioned responses in learning environments.
Page 102: Classical Conditioning Passive Learning
Characterization of classical conditioning as automatic, necessitating no conscious effort.
Page 103: Acquisition in Classical Conditioning
Establishment of learned associations based on timing and consistent pairings.
Page 104: Extinction in Classical Conditioning
Loss of conditioned response when associations are broken; understanding generalization and discrimination.
Page 105: Spontaneous Recovery
Re-emergence of conditioned responses after a period of extinction.
Page 106: Application of Classical Conditioning
Behaviorist approach applied to human learning with the Baby Albert experiment and aversive conditioning.
Page 107: Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Investigating behavior change through reinforcement effects during early research on operant learning.
Page 108: Operant Conditioning Defined
Differentiation of operant conditioning from classical conditioning; reinforcement and punishment's role.
Page 109: B.F. Skinner’s Influence
Use of the Skinner Box demonstrated concepts of reinforcement and behavior shaping.
Page 110: Shaping Behavior
Process of gradually guiding behavior towards desired outcomes using successive approximations.
Page 111: Chaining Behaviors
Method to establish sequences of behavior through gradual reinforcement of each step.
Page 112: Reinforcement Dynamics
Description of positive/negative reinforcement and their roles in increasing behaviors.
Page 113: Behavior Modification through Punishment
Exploration of the effects of punishment on behavior reduction concerning reinforcement strategies.
Page 114: Factors Influencing Learning
Highlighting the effects of reinforcement classifications in learning and behavior change.
Page 115: Reinforcers Explained
Definitions and examples of positive and negative reinforcers based on behavioral responses.
Page 116: Punitive Measures
Discussion on effective timing and intensity of punishment strategies for behavior management.
Page 117: Continuous vs. Partial Reinforcement
Testing behavioral acquisition methods through continuous and intermittent reinforcement paradigms.
Page 118: Understanding Reinforcement Schedules
Detailed variables influencing responses and how different ratios and intervals impact behavior acquisition.
Page 119: Ratio Schedules Explored
Differentiating fixed from variable ratio reinforcement methods with practical examples.
Page 120: Interval Schedules Compared
Overview of fixed and variable intervals explaining response behaviors over time.
Page 121: Dual Role of Punishment
Clarification on types of punishment reflecting either positive reinforcement or negative reinforcement effects.
Page 122: Omission Training
Characteristics of omission training and its effectiveness in altering behavior patterns.
Page 123: Drawbacks of Physical Punishment
Insight into the psychological effects of punitive measures on children and behavioral outcomes.
Page 124: Distinction Between Reinforcement and Punishment
Emphasizing the importance of positive reinforcement alongside corrective measures.
Page 125: Identification of Reinforcement Schedule
Application scenarios to identify reinforcement schedules in various contexts.
Page 126: Primary vs. Secondary Reinforcers
Explaining inherent rewards versus learned rewards and the role of money as a generalized reinforcer.
Page 127: Development of Superstitious Behavior
Link between partial reinforcement principles and the formation of superstitions among individuals.
Page 128: Insight Learning
Description of sudden insights that lead to solution realization in learning situations, linked with Wolfgang Kohler’s work.
Page 129: Latent Learning
Understanding unobserved learning that manifests when incentives are provided in context, featuring Tolman’s maze experiment with rats.
Page 130: Social Learning Theory
Learnings through observational learning as illustrated by Bandura's BoBo doll experiment; combines observational learning with operant conditioning.
Page 131: Biological Influences on Learning
Discussion on innate food aversions as an evolutionary survival mechanism notably through taste aversions, showcasing rapid associative learning.
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