Unit 8 & 9 Flashcards - Cold War, Decolonization, and Globalization

Unit 8: The Cold War and Decolonization (1900 to Present)

Big Idea 1: The Cold War

The Cold War was a decades-long ideological struggle between the United States and the Soviet Union, shaping the geopolitics of the second half of the 20th century. It was characterized by tension and the threat of violence, but without direct military conflict between the superpowers. This period influenced global alliances, technological advancements, and numerous proxy conflicts.

Causes of the Cold War

1. Conflicting Ideologies:

   • The United States represented democratic capitalism, emphasizing individual freedoms and market-driven economies.

   • The Soviet Union represented authoritarian communism, prioritizing state control and collective ownership.

   • Both ideologies sought to expand their influence globally, leading to conflict. The US promoted democracy and free markets, while the USSR aimed to spread communism.

   • These ideologies behaved like universalizing religions, seeking converts worldwide. They offered competing visions for the future of humanity.

2. Mutual Mistrust:

   • Disagreements over the post-World War II world, including Stalin's control over Eastern Europe and refusal to allow democratic elections. The Yalta and Potsdam conferences revealed deep rifts between the Allies.

   • Disagreements over how to treat Germany after World War II. The Soviets wanted a weak Germany, while Western powers favored German economic recovery to stabilize Europe.

Decolonization and the Non-Aligned Movement

Decolonization led to the emergence of numerous new states, particularly in Africa and Asia. The US and the Soviet Union competed for influence over these states, offering economic and military aid to gain allies. Many of these newly independent states resisted being drawn into the Cold War rivalry, forming the Non-Aligned Movement.

• Non-Aligned Movement:

  • Began in 1955 with a meeting hosted by Indonesian President Akmatsu Carno at the Bandung Conference.

  • Included 29 African and Asian heads of state representing newly independent or still-colonized states. Key figures included Jawaharlal Nehru of India, Kwame Nkrumah of Ghana, and Gamal Abdel Nasser of Egypt.

  • Aimed to create a bloc separate from both the Soviet Union and the United States, promoting neutrality and cooperation among developing nations.

Big Idea 2: Major Effects of the Cold War

The Cold War led to an arms race, new military alliances, and proxy wars across the globe, causing widespread political and social upheaval.

Arms Race

• The United States and the Soviet Union invested heavily in developing larger and more powerful stockpiles of weapons, including nuclear weapons. This included intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine-launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs).

• This created significant tension due to the threat of nuclear war, exemplified by the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962.

Military Alliances

1. NATO (North Atlantic Treaty Organization):

   • A defensive alliance initiated by the United States in 1949 and joined by several Western European states to counter Soviet expansion. Key members included the United Kingdom, France, and West Germany.

2. Warsaw Pact:

   • The Soviet Union's response to NATO, formed in 1955, including the Soviet Union and its satellite states in Eastern and Central Europe. Members included Poland, East Germany, and Czechoslovakia.

Proxy Wars

Proxy wars occurred when the United States and the Soviet Union supported opposing sides in smaller conflicts to advance their ideologies without directly fighting each other. These conflicts often resulted in significant human suffering and prolonged instability.

• Examples:

  • Asia: Korean and Vietnam Wars

    • Both countries were split between communist and anti-communist forces.

    • The US supported anti-communist forces, while the Soviet Union supported communist forces. In Korea, the US backed South Korea against the communist North Korea, supported by China and the Soviet Union. In Vietnam, the US supported South Vietnam against the communist North Vietnam, backed by the Soviet Union and China.

    • Both wars ended in stalemates with significant casualties. The Korean War resulted in a divided peninsula, while the Vietnam War led to the reunification of Vietnam under communist rule.

  • Latin America: Nicaragua

    • In 1979, the Sandinistas (socialist revolutionaries) overthrew the Nicaraguan dictator with support from Cuba and the Soviets.

    • The US supported the Contras, a group aiming to oust the Sandinistas. The Iran-Contra affair further complicated this conflict.

    • The conflict ended in 1989 with a ceasefire and military demobilization agreement, leading to democratic elections in 1990.

  • Africa: Angolan Civil War

    • A civil war among Angolans where the US and its allies supported non-communist groups, while the Soviets and their allies supported communist groups. The conflict involved various factions, including the MPLA (supported by the Soviet Union and Cuba) and UNITA (supported by the US and South Africa).

    • The communist forces eventually won and assumed power.

    • These proxy wars became much more intense and deadly due to the involvement of the superpowers, resulting in prolonged conflict and instability in the region.

Big Idea 3: The Rise of Communism in China

China's adoption of communism was a significant event during this period, reshaping the global balance of power.

Causes of China's Communist Revolution

• Grievances over China's dependence on Western powers and spheres of influence. The Boxer Rebellion and other anti-imperialist movements highlighted these grievances.

• The 1911 revolution established China as a republic, followed by a civil war between the Nationalist Kuomintang and the Communist Party.

• Mao Zedong's communist forces, aided by the Soviet Union, defeated the nationalist party, leading to the establishment of communist China in 1949. The Long March and the Second Sino-Japanese War strengthened the Communist Party's position.

Mao's Communist Policies

• Collectivization of Agriculture:

  • Similar to Stalin's policies in the Soviet Union, but relatively peaceful in China due to widespread support for the communist party among peasants. This involved the creation of agricultural communes.

• State Control of the Economy: The Great Leap Forward:

  • An economic plan to rapidly industrialize China through the development of heavy industry in rural areas from 1958 to 1962.

  • Industrial goods produced were of poor quality, and combined with bad harvests, led to the starvation of 20 to 50 million Chinese people. This resulted in widespread famine and economic devastation.

Socialist Movements in Other Regions

• Egypt:

  • Gamal Abdul Nasser proclaimed independence for Egypt in 1952 and nationalized the Suez Canal in 1956.

  • The Soviet Union backed Nasser against British, French, and Israeli forces during the Suez Crisis.

• Vietnam:

  • After colonial independence from France, a communist government was established in North Vietnam and implemented land redistribution, transferring land from wealthy landowners to the peasantry.

Big Idea 4: Decolonization Processes

Decolonization occurred through either negotiated independence or armed conflict, leading to diverse outcomes for newly independent nations.

Negotiated Independence: India

• In 1885, Indians formed the Indian National Congress to petition the British for greater self-rule.

• After World War I, Muandas Gandhi led a nonviolent resistance movement characterized by civil disobedience, including boycotts and peaceful protests.

• After World War II, Britain recognized India's independence in 1947 due to economic pressures and changing geopolitical dynamics.

• Despite negotiated independence, violence occurred due to the partition of India into India (for Hindus) and Pakistan (for Muslims), resulting in mass displacement and communal violence.

Armed Resistance: Algeria

• Algeria had a significant French settler population, making negotiated independence more challenging.

• In 1954, Algerian Muslims formed the National Liberation Front (FLN) and rebelled against the French colonial authorities.

• The French responded with brutality, and the war continued until 1962, when French President Charles de Gaulle declared the end of the war, recognizing Algeria's independence. The Evian Accords formally granted Algeria its independence.

Big Idea 5: Redrawing Political Boundaries

Redrawing political boundaries during decolonization led to conflict and population displacement, particularly in regions with complex ethnic and religious dynamics.

Example: Israel

• Before World War I, Palestine was part of the Ottoman Empire with a majority Muslim population.

• After World War I, Palestine was transferred to Britain under the mandate system.

• Zionism, a nationalistic ideology among Jews, aimed to establish a Jewish state in Palestine to provide a safe haven after centuries of persecution.

• Increasing waves of Jewish migration to Palestine led to resistance from the Arab Muslim population, who feared displacement and loss of their land.

• After World War II, the United Nations partitioned Palestine into two states, one for Jews and one for Arab Muslims, under UN Resolution 181.

• Jews accepted the plan and declared independence in 1948, but Palestinians, supported by neighboring Arab states, took up arms against the Israelis, resulting in ongoing conflict and displacement.

Big Idea 6: Government Role in Economic Life

In newly independent states, governments often took a strong role in guiding economic life to promote growth and development, leading to various economic policies and outcomes.

• Example: Egypt under Gamal Abdul Nasser

  • In 1956, Nasser nationalized the Suez Canal, gaining Soviet support against Western powers and asserting Egyptian control over a vital waterway.

• Other examples include Indira Gandhi in India and her adoption of the Green Revolution to increase food production, and Julius Nyerere's modernization policies in Tanzania, emphasizing self-reliance and socialist principles.

Big Idea 7: Resistance Movements

Movements to resist oppressive power structures multiplied during this period, some characterized by nonviolence and others by violence, reflecting diverse strategies for achieving social and political change.

Nonviolent Resistance

1. Muandas Gandhi:

   • Led the homespun movement to protest Britain's economic dominance of India's cotton industry, promoting self-sufficiency and economic independence.

   • Led the salt march in response to the British imperial salt tax, challenging British authority and mobilizing mass support.

2. Martin Luther King Jr.:

   • Inspired by Gandhi, used civil disobedience to protest racial segregation laws in the United States, advocating for equality and justice.

   • Led the Montgomery bus boycott and sit-ins, challenging discriminatory practices and promoting integration.

   • The Civil Rights Movement led to political change, including Supreme Court decisions such as Brown v. Board of Education and anti-discrimination laws like the Civil Rights Act of 1964.

3. Nelson Mandela:

   • Led black South Africans in acts of nonviolent resistance against apartheid as part of the African National Congress (ANC), advocating for equal rights and an end to racial segregation.

   • Eventually endorsed violent resistance and was jailed for over two decades, becoming a symbol of resistance against apartheid.

   • Upon his release, he became president of South Africa, ending apartheid and promoting reconciliation.

Intensified Violence

• Augusto Pinochet in Chile:

  • Led a military coup to overthrow the democratically elected Marxist president Salvador Allende in 1973 with support from the United States, marking a period of political repression and human rights abuses.

  • Established himself as a brutal dictator and conducted raids, executions, and torture against political enemies, suppressing dissent and consolidating power.

Big Idea 8: End of the Cold War

The Cold War ended due to US military development, the Soviet Union's failed invasion of Afghanistan, and the reform policies of Mikhail Gorbachev, leading to a new world order.

Factors Leading to the End of the Cold War

1. Advances in US Military and Technological Development:

   • Ronald Reagan's massive spending on military and technological development, including the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI), put pressure on the Soviet Union, which struggled to keep up due to its lagging economy.

2. Soviet Union's Failed Invasion of Afghanistan:

   • The Soviet invasion of Afghanistan in 1979 to support the communist regime was unsuccessful and further depressed the Soviet economy, draining resources and morale.

3. Policies of Mikhail Gorbachev:

   • Introduced Perestroika (restructuring of the Soviet economy) and Glasnost (openness, freedom of speech), aiming to reform the Soviet system but inadvertently weakening it.

   • Announced that the Soviet Union would no longer use military intervention to prop up communist governments in Eastern Europe, leading to the collapse of communist regimes in the region.

   • These destabilizing forces led to the dissolution of the Soviet Union in 1991, marking the end of the Cold War and the emergence of a unipolar world dominated by the United States.

Unit 9: Globalization (1900 to Present)

Big Idea 1: New Technologies and Globalization

New technologies increased the speed of globalization and had widespread effects on the global population in the 20th and 21st centuries, transforming communication, transportation, and production.

Transportation and Communication Technologies

• The radio, cell phones, and the internet facilitated communication, enabling instant exchange of information across borders.

• Air travel facilitated migration and maintained contact, connecting people and cultures globally.

• Shipping containers increased the freight of goods that could be shipped internationally, leading to a massive increase in global commerce and supply chain integration.

Energy Technologies

• Petroleum and nuclear power increased worker productivity and the amount of goods that could be manufactured, driving industrial growth and economic expansion.

Medical Innovations

• Birth control gave women increasing control over whether or when they would have babies, leading to declining birth rates in wealthier Western nations and changing demographic patterns.

• Vaccines for polio, measles, etc., put an end to many diseases, especially in wealthier nations with access to those vaccines, increasing life expectancy and improving public health.

Advances in Agriculture: The Green Revolution

• The Green Revolution involved the creation of new strands of wheat and grain through controlled crossbreeding, leading to more abundant harvests and increased food security.

• These advancements were especially deployed in former colonial nations trying to get on their feet, improving agricultural productivity and supporting economic development.

Big Idea 2: Diseases in the Age of Globalization

New and old diseases continue to pose a threat in the age of globalization, spreading rapidly due to increased travel and interconnectedness.

Diseases Associated with Poverty

• Malaria, tuberculosis, cholera.

  • Continue to spread in impoverished countries due to the lack of access to vaccines, sanitation, and healthcare, highlighting global health inequalities.

New Diseases and Pandemics

• Ebola, AIDS, Spanish flu pandemic of 1918, COVID-19.

• Pandemics have serious demographic consequences, causing social disruption and economic slowdown, impacting societies and economies worldwide.

• They also create an opportunity for technological and medical advances, driving innovation and investment in healthcare and research.

Diseases Associated with Old Age

• Heart disease, Alzheimer's.

  • Associated with the Western world or the developed world, reflecting changing demographics and lifestyle factors.

Big Idea 3: Environmental Problems

Globalization has created significant environmental problems with various attempted solutions, raising concerns about sustainability and environmental stewardship.

Environmental Problems

1. Deforestation: Forests are being cleared to make room for more farmland, leading to habitat loss and biodiversity decline.

2. Desertification: Fertile land becomes desert-like due to deforestation and harmful chemicals, threatening food security and livelihoods.

3. Decline in air quality: The Great Smog in London in the 1950s combined fog with industrial coal emissions, leading to toxic air and fatalities, highlighting the dangers of pollution.

4. Increasing consumption of fresh water: More water is needed for farming, and impoverished nations lack access to clean drinking water, exacerbating water scarcity and inequality.

5. Increasing global temperature (climate change): Carbon emissions increase the global temperature, potentially causing apocalyptic problems, including rising sea levels, extreme weather events, and ecosystem disruptions.

Solutions to Environmental Problems

• Kyoto Protocol in 1997 and the Paris Agreement in 2015: Nations agree to limit their carbon emissions to stem the tide of climate change, promoting international cooperation and sustainable development.

Big Idea 4: Changes in the Globalized Economy

Both the nature and scope of the globalized economy have changed significantly since 1900, transforming production, trade, and finance.

Changes in the Economy

1. Proliferation of free market economics:

   • Ronald Reagan in the United States and Margaret Thatcher in Great Britain emphasized free market economics through the deregulation of business and tax cuts, promoting economic liberalization and privatization.

2. Rise of knowledge economies:

   • Wealthier countries like Finland, Japan, and the United States major in knowledge work rather than manufacturing, shifting towards high-tech industries and innovation.

   • Less developed countries are becoming the manufacturing hubs of the world (e.g., Vietnam, Mexico, and China), benefiting from foreign investment and export-oriented growth.

3. Rise of multinational corporations:

   • Corporations are incorporated in one country but do business in many countries across the world (e.g., Nestle, Mahindra and Mahindra), expanding their global reach and influence.

4. Rise of regional and global free trade agreements:

   • Agreements between countries to reduce barriers to trade, such as tariffs, promoting economic integration and trade liberalization.

   • Examples: NAFTA (North American Free Trade Agreement) between Canada, the United States, and Mexico; Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN).

Big Idea 5: Calls for Reform

Since 1900, increasing globalization has led to calls for reform in human rights and economic inequality, advocating for social justice and equality.

Reform Movements

1. Race:

   • Apartheid in South Africa: Nelson Mandela upended the system, was imprisoned, and eventually freed to become president, abolishing apartheid and promoting racial equality.

   • The US outlawed racist Jim Crow regulations with the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and sought to write the wrongs of discrimination at the ballot box with the voting rights act in 1965, expanding civil rights and political participation.

2. Class:

   • Cast reservation system in India:

     • The lowest members of the cast were systematically marginalized in Indian society, so the cast reservation system mandated that a certain number of jobs would be reserved in various industries for the lowest cast members, addressing historical inequalities and promoting social mobility.

3. Gender:

   • In 1975, the United Nations first world conference on women drafted a declaration of rights for women, including the right of women to vote, advocating for gender equality and women's empowerment.

4. Religion and culture:

   • The UN draft included an emphasis on many other rights for women.

   • Christian liberation theology in Latin America taught that Christ was always on the side of the poor and always against the rich and the powerful, advocating for social justice and liberation.

   • The Negritude movement in French West Africa was an artistic movement that celebrated blackness, promoting cultural pride and identity.

Big Idea 6: Globalized Culture

After 1900, culture became increasingly globalized, leading to cultural exchange and hybridization.

Global Culture Examples

• Music: Reggae, popularized by Bob Marley, and K-pop, spreading globally and influencing musical trends.

• Movies: Hollywood and Bollywood, shaping global entertainment and cultural narratives.

• Consumer culture: Online commerce (Amazon, Alibaba) and recognizable global brands (McDonald's, Coca-Cola), creating a global marketplace and consumer society.

Big Idea 7: Resistance Movements

Despite all the benefits of globalization, there have also been significant resistance movements against its effects, challenging the dominant narratives and advocating for alternative models.

Resistance Movements

• These protest global institutions that facilitated and further spread the engine of globalization, criticizing their impact on local communities and the environment.

• Protests against the World Trade Organization and the International Monetary Fund point out that these international organizations favored richer nations and that the inequality of that needed to be remedied, advocating for fair trade and equitable development.

• Protest movements are most often based in less developed nations, seeking to protect their sovereignty and promote their interests.

Big Idea 8: Nations and states interact across the world

Globalization has changed the way nations and states interact across the world, leading to increased cooperation and interdependence.

United Nations

Forms after World War II to maintain world peace and foster international cooperation, playing a central role in global governance.

• It has several bodies: the Security Council, the International Court of Justice, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights.

• The Universal Declaration of Human Rights recognizes inherent rights for all members of the global community, regardless of what rights are recognized by their individual states, setting a global standard for human rights protection.

• The UN plays a big role in economic cooperation among global states and also the protection of refugees - there are UN programs to address world hunger, providing humanitarian assistance and promoting sustainable development.

• The UN and other globalizations organizations like it reflect the needs of an increasingly globalized world, addressing complex global challenges and promoting multilateralism.