APHUG Study Guide 🌍

Unit 1: Thinking Geographically

Eratosthenes was a Greek geographer/mathematician who created the word geography, which is the study of land use and civilizations

• Geographical Grids

  • Meridians: between the north and south (longitude)

  • Parallels: circle around globe parallel to the equator (latitude)

• Projection: transferring a spherical globe to a flat map

  • Mercator Projection: good direction, bad depiction of sizes

  • Peters Projection: better size, bad depiction of shape

  • Robinsons Projection: most accurate map thus far

  • Equal-area Projection: flat globe view, preserves size but not shape

  • Goodes Projection: angular shaped equal-area projection

Location- the position of something on the earth’s surface

Absolute location: exact place on earth something is

Relative location: location of something relative to other things

Space- the physical gap or distance between two objects

Scale- relationship between size/distance of objects on a map versus the actual object on the earth’s surface

Place- specific point on earth with human and physical characteristics that distinguish it from other points

Agglomeration- when purposeful clustering occurs around a central point

• Reference Maps- emphasize geographical location (names, countries, etc.)

• Thematic Maps- emphasize spatial patterns of geographical data, focuses on attributes instead of features on earth

  • Choropleth maps use color to show data

  • Dot distribution maps use dots to represent data 

  • Isoline maps use lines to depict variations in data

  • Cartogram maps show the sizes of countries based on statistics

Global positioning system: pinpoints location on earth using remote sensing satellites. It is primarily used for navigation

Geographical information system: analyzes data in layers of the earth using computer data. Primarily used for environmental data

Remote Sensing- important tool for GIS and GPS data, used for imagery and mapping

The Prime Meridian set at 0 degrees, passing through Greenwich England

The international date line occurs at 180 degrees longitude, dividing the pole

The equator is 0 degrees latitude, N and S poles are 90 degrees latitude

Environmental Geography- centers on the interaction of human and physical geography

Region- area of earth defined by one or more unique characteristics

• Formal Region: an area where everyone shares common characteristics

  • Ex- culture regions, political regions, environmental regions

• Functional Region: area organized around a focal point

  • Ex- school district area

• Vernacular Region (perceptual): area people believe exists as part of their cultural identity

  • Ex- the south

Distance Decay (gravity)- states that the farther away different places are from an origin, the less they will interact.

Gravity Model- people gravitate toward bigger and closer places

Tobler's Law- states that all places are interrelated but closer places relate more than further ones

Friction of Distance- length of distance that inhibits the interaction between two points

Space-Time Compression- decreased time and relative distance between places increases interaction

Diffusion

Hearth- point of origin or place of innovation

Relocation Diffusion- spread by physical movement of people

Expansion Diffusion- spread in an additive process and in all directions outward

• Hierarchical Diffusion: idea spreads from certain levels (eg. trends)

• Contagious Diffusion: pattern of movement originating from a single point and traveling in line to outward locations

• Stimulus Diffusion: spread of underlying desire or principle but not exact product (eg. mcdonalds)

Unit 2: Population and Migration

Population Geography- focuses on the number, composition, and distribution of human beings on earth’s surface

Population Distribution- arrangement of locations on the earth’s surface where people live

• Influencing factors of settlement

  • food, shelter, water

  • people gravitate towards midlatitudes (good temp. and soil)

  • elevation, low-lying areas are preferable

Population Density- number of people that live in a given area of land

• Arithmetic (crude) density: total number of people divided by total land area

• Physiological density: total population divided by total arable land

• Agricultural density: total number of farmers to an area of arable land

Population Pyramids- represent age 

And sex composition 

Sustainability- using resources in a 

way to ensure availability 

Population Concentrations-

⅔ of the world is concentrated in 4 regions: East Asia, South Asia, Southeast Asia, and Europe

Crude Birth Rate- number of live births in a given year for every 1000 people in a population

Crude Death Rate- number of deaths in a given year for every 1000 people in a population

Total Fertility Rate- average number of children a woman will have in her childbearing years

Infant Mortality Rate- the number of deaths among infants for each 1000 live births

Natural Increase Rate- the difference between crude births and deaths

Thomas Malthus’ Theory: proposed food would increase arithmetically while the population would increase exponentially, leading to overpopulation and mass starvation

Demographic Momentum- low fertility rates with a growing population of young people

Demographic Transition Model: explains the transition from high birth and death rate to low birth and death rate as a country goes from pre-to-post-industrial economic systems

Stage 1: Low growth

• Preindustrial, agrarian societies are in this stage. This stage is characterized by having a low population growth, with high deaths

Stage 2: High growth

• Occurs when a country is industrialized. High population growth and lower deaths

Stage 3: Moderate Growth

• Stage of a mature industrial economy. Moderate growth and birth rate declines

Stage 4: Low Growth

• Occurs in a post-industrial economy, birth rate and death rate are almost equal

Stage 5: Declining

• Occurs when death rate exceeds birth rate

Epidemiologic Transition Model: focuses on unique causes of death in each stage of the DTM

Stage 1: Pestilence and Famine

• Parasitic or infectious diseases, accidents, or animal attacks cause most deaths. High death and low life expectancy

Stage 2: Receding Pandemics

• The number of pandemics declines as a result of increased sanitation and medicine. Decreasing death rate and increased life expectancy 

Stage 3: Man-made Diseases

• Diseases associated with aging such as heart disease, cancer etc.

Stage 4: Delayed Degenerative Diseases

• Age-related diseases such as alzheimers or dementia, death rate reaches it’s lowest level and life expectancy peaks

Stage 5: Reemergence of Infection, Parasitic Diseases

• Infectious and parasitic diseases increase as bacteria and parasites become resistant to antibiotics and vaccines

Migration- permenant relocation; interational, internal, interregional 

Circulation Migration- involves a journey that begins at our home and brings us back to it (vacations, school, work)

Periodic Migration- longer periods away from home (transhumance, hibernation)

Step Migration- migration in steps, usually alone and from rural to urban areas

Chain Migration- migration of people to area usually because of relatives or members of same nationality

Push Factors: factors that push people away from land (conflict, pollution, increased pricing)
Pull Factors: factors that draw people towards land (job opportunities, healthcare, education)

Refugee- flee homes and cross international borders; can’t return 

IDPs- flee home for some reason, but within borders

Transnational Migration- when people move from one country to another

Internal Migration- movement of people within a country

Asylum- protection of immigrants by a diff county 

Ravensteins Laws- 

• Migrants are mostly men

• Migrants usually travel short distances in steps

• People in rural areas more likely to migrate 

• Migration flows create counterflows

Unit 3: Cultural Patterns and Processes

Culture- the shared material characteristics, traits, behavioral patterns, beliefs, and social norms of a particular group

• Include society, politics, fine arts, and economy

Cultural Landscape- aka built environment, modification of the environment by a group that can reflect the group’s cultural beliefs and values

• Natural environment- factors part of the environment

• Built environment- physical artifacts humans have made

Cultural Regions- determined based on characteristics such as religion, ethnicity, and lang.   (eg. New England)

Cultural Realms- large areas including several regions with a few similar traits such as lang. families, history, and religious traditions (eg. Europe)

Environmental Determinism- the belief that physical environment esp. climate and terrain, shape culture (the opposite of this is possiblism)

Artifacts- compromise material culture of a group, consisting of tangible objects (food, tools, buildings, jewels)

Mentifacts- compromise non-material culture of a group, consists of objects w/o physical presence (religion, values, roles, time)

Habit- repetitive action that an individual performs

Custom- repetitive action of a group performed to the extent that it becomes a cultural char,

• Indigenous Culture- numbers of ethnic group residing in ancestral land and typically posseses unique cultural traits

• Popular Culture- cultural traits such as food, clothing, music, being adopted by various heterogenous groups globally

• Folk Culture- traditionally practiced primarily by small, homogenous groups living in isolated rural areas

Ethnicity- groups that share experiences, characteristics, ancestry, language, and customs

Ethnic Enclaves- clusters of people of the same culture, often surrounded by people of a dominant culture in the region (eg. chinatown)

Ethnocentrism- evaluation of other cultures based on perceptions within one’s own culture

• centrifugal force: forces people further apart

Cultural Relativism- individuals' beliefs should be evaluated based on their own culture and standards

• centripetal force: pulls people together

Acculturation- when 2 cultures contact but do not completely merge while adopting and retaining traits

Assimilation- when 2 cultures merge and a dominant culture engulfs the minor culture

Syncretism- the fusion of two cultures, religions, or ideas

Sequent Occupance- the notion that successive societies leave their cultural imprints on a place, each contributing to the cumulative cultural landscape.

Cultural Globalization-refers to the transmission of ideas, meanings and values around the world, can be harmful to indigenous countries, so there are national regulations to lessen the impact of foreign influence

Culture Components

• Architecture- the art and science of designing buildings and structures.

  • Modern: developed in the 20th century and expresses geometric ordered forms

  • Contemporary: more organic, with the use of curvature

  • Traditional: uses trad. materials like stone, brick, steel, etc. and is often based on folk house designs 

• Christian Architecture: traditional houses of worship, look like cathedrals or churches
  

• Hindu Architecture: include temples and shrines carved of stone; usually rectangular with short towers and faces of deities
  

• Buddhist Architecture: can be a stupa (dome/tower with eyes) or a pagoda (several levels with winged roofs)

• Islamic Architecture: include mosques, (think of the box in mecca) and minarets (towers)
  

• Judaic Architecture: include synagogues, most holy place in the wailing wal

• Music- non-material culture with geographic roots and regional variations

  • Folk music: composed anonymously and passed down orally from generation to generation;

  • Pop music: the global flow of music related to popular culture

Religion

Universalizing Religion- religion that is globally spread, reaching out to all people, not just a single cultural background (buddhism, christianity, islam)

Ethnic Religion- religion that often remains in the same area, appealing to one group (hinduism, judaism, shinto)

Christianity (31%), Islam (24%), Hinduism (15%), and Buddhism (7%)

Age: Hinduism, Buddhism, Christianity, Islam

• Monotheism- belief in singular god

-judaism, christianity, islam, zoroastrianism

• Polytheism- belief in more than one god

-hinduism, shintoism, taosim, buddhism

Animist Tradition: Various ethnic, tribal, and other forms of nature worship

• Animist share the common belief that items in nature can have a spiritual being

• Ex. indigenous american, voodo

Hindu-Buddhist Tradition: include hinduism, buddhism, and jainism

•  Belief that there are levels to existence, with nirvana being the most enlightened

• Karma belief system and reincarnation

Abrahamic Tradition: include judaism, christianity and islam

• Monotheistic belief system with singular deity

• Significance placed on prophecies

Yugoslavia- a country formed with a multitude of ethnicities and religions that ultimately failed because of the clashing values

• Ethnic Cleansing- the process by which people from an ethnic group are eliminated, often under threat of violence or death

• Balkinization-the fragmentation or breakup of a region or country into smaller regions or countries

• Irredentism -a policy of cultural extension and potential political expansion by a country aimed at a group of its nationals living in a neighboring country

3 Abrahamic Religions: Judaism, Christianity, Islam

• Judaism: 1800 BCE

  • diffused to southwest asia before christianity, founded by abraham

  • dispora occured from discrimination (holocaust)

  • jews placed in ghettos and concentration camps (5 mil deaths)

• Christianity: 1 AD

  • most popular religion, 90% of western hemisphere follow

  • jerusalem is a sacred site

  • partially based on jewish ideology

• Islam: 610 AD

  • 2nd largest religion, followed increasingly in north america and europe

  • partially based on judaism and christianity

  • 2 branches, sunni and shiite (88% are sunni)

Religion-Branch-Denomination-Congregation-Sect

Language

Institutional Language- a language used in media, advocation, gov. documents 

Official Language- language adopted by gov. to conduct business and publish documents

Lingua Franca- language understood by people w/ diff native languages (english)

Pidgin- a form of speech for speakers of different languages

Creole- languages are formed by the combination of two or more languages

Literary Tradition- language spoken and written

There are over 7000 languages, English is the 

most popular, the Indo-European family is most common

Dialect- a regional variety of a language distinguished by pronunciation, spelling, and vocabulary

Indo-European (2.9 bil)

Sino Tibetian (1.3 bil)

Niger-Congo (435 mil)

Unit 4: Political Patterns and Processes 

Country- an identifiable land area

Nation- a population with a single culture

State- a population under a single government

Nation-state- a single culture under a single government

Sovereignty- when a state has control over it’s own internal affairs by other states

Multi-ethnic State- state containing more than one ethnicity

Multi-state Nation- group of people who share common characteristics and live in many states

• Democracy: government where people exercise power by voting (eg. US)

• Republic: government where power is held by people who act as representatives for a pop. and are voted for (eg. US)

• Monarchy: ruler who is a king, queen, or emperor (eg. England)

• Theocracy: ruler governing in the name of god (eg. Vatican city)

• Dictatorship: a ruler with total power, usually taken by force (eg. Soviet union)

• Anocracy: a country that isn't fully autocratic or democratic

Federal State: follows federalism, where power is divided and shared by the central government and sub-divisional governments

• Heterogenous

• More effective gov. service and reduced separation

• Local govs. for many regions, empowering minors 

Unitary State: most power placed in a central government

• Compact, Homogenous

• Standardizes laws, patriotism due to uniformity

• Disconnected with local areas and minorities are marginalized

• Less corrupted local governments

Census- determine the # of people in each state to reapportion members

Apportionment- process by which seats in legislative body are distributed, reapportionment is drawing of new voting districts

Gerrymandering- drawing political boundaries to give part a numeric advantage

Boundary: invisible line marking the extent of a state’s territory; brings neighbor states into direct contact

• can be physical, political, geometric, cultural, fortified, antecedent, subsequent, superimposed, or relic

  • superimposed- created by foreign state or group

  • subsequent- develop with the cultural landscape

  • antecedent- existing boundary before people inhabited a place

Frontier: zone where no state exercises complete control; provides more separation

Definitional Boundary Dispute- takes place over the interpretations of the originally defined boundary

Locational Boundary Dispute- dispute over location and ownership of a boundary/land

Operational Boundary Dispute- dispute on how to manage boundary and handle different situations

Allocational Boundary Dispute- happens over the use of what’s in a boundary, such as natural resources

• UNCLOS Law of Sea- defines the rights and responsibilities of nations to their use of the world's oceans

  • Territorial Waters are out to 12 nautical miles

  • Contiguous Zones are 24 nautical miles from territorial waters

  • Exclusive Economic Zones are 200 nautical miles from territorial waters

Shapes of States:

Compact States- distance from the center to any boundary is about the same, giving it a similar shape to a circle. This promotes good communication

Prorupted States- a compact state with a large projecting extension that often exists to reach a natural resource

Elongated States- these states have a long, narrow shape; these states often have communication or transportation problems

Fragmented States- these states have many discontinuous pieces of territory, such as islands 

Perforated States- a state that completely surrounds another one 

Microstate- very small country that is often homogenous 

Colonialism: acquiring control over the country by occupying it with settlers

Neocolonialism: indirect use of political, cultural, or economic power to influence other countries

Imperialism: extending power by diplomacy or military force

Decolonization: process by which colonies become independent from colonizing country

Berlin Conference- meeting of european powers to divide colonized parts of africa based on longitude and latitude

Shatterbelts- areas where countries or people are subjected to political, cultural, and economic pressure from external powers that are in conflict with each other

Devolution- the transfer of power from central to regional government

• Factors include: physical geography of state and divisions of cultural groups,

• Political instability or governments abusing power

• Economic and social divisions

Supranationalism- countries joining together for a certain purpose (eg. United Nations)

Commonwealth of Nations: an important supranational organization that provides special trade, education services, gov. funding and more

Geopolitics- global-scale relationship between sovereign states

Heartland-Rimland Theory: the Rimland Theory emphasizes the significance of coastal areas and their access to sea trade routes, while the Heartland Theory emphasizes the dominance of land-based regions, particularly the interior of Eurasia.

Shatterbelt Theory: Cohen's theory predicted that armed conflicts after 1950 would likely occur in areas within the Inner Crescent or Middle East.

Unit 5: Agricultural and Rural Land Use Patterns and Processes  

Agriculture- deliberate tending of crops and livestock to produce food and fiber

Primary Economy (Agriculture)- part of economy that draws raw materials from natural environment such as agriculture, livestock, fishing, forestry, and mining

Secondary Economy (Industry)- transforms raw materials into manufactured goods. This sector grows quickly as societies industrialize 

Tertiary Economy (Services)- involves services rather than goods such as construction, trade, finance, transportation, etc. 

• First Agricultural Revolution (Neolithic)- Occured in Fertile Crescent. Caused the shift to agriculture from hunting and gathering which changed humanity forever. These changes increased reliable food supplies, increase in population, job specialization, a widening of gender differences, and nomads vs settled people

• Vegetative Planting: where the shoots, stems, and roots of existing plants were collected and grown together

• Seed Agriculture: where fertilized seed grains and fruits of plants were collected and replanted together

• Horticulture: where plant varieties that thrived in different soils or climates were cultivated

• Columbian Exchange: transfer of plants, animals, precious metals, culture,  and diseases between the Old World (Europe and Africa) and the Americas. Domesticated new world crops that made their way to the rest of the world

• Second Agricultural Revolution- preceded the Industrial Revolution; causing technological changes and innovations in agriculture

  • Improved crop rotation with better machinery, such as the cotton gin, seed drill, and plows.

  • Enclosure Acts privatized 30% of England's land

• Third Agricultural Revolution (Green)- type of industrial agriculture, focuses on the industrialized production of goods using different methods such as biotechnology

  • Seed Hybridization- process of breeding two plants with desirable traits

  • GMOs- genetically modified organisms produced when humans use engineering techniques to change DNA of a seed

  • Pesticides/Herbicides- got rid of unwanted plants or pests to maintain crops

  • Miracle seed was wheat

Subsistence Farming- most prevalent in LDCs, it is the production of only enough food for a farmer’s family 

• Intensive Subsistence: farmers expend a relatively large amount of effort to produce the maximum yield from a piece of land. Can be rice dominant or not; common in Asia

• Shifting Cultivation: aka slash and burn farming used to clear soil and then replenish it

• Pastoral Nomadism: based on herding domesticated animals

• Plantation- usually one cash crop produced at very large scale

Commercial Farming- common in MDCs; the production of crops mainly for the purpose of selling and making a profit

• Mixed Crop and Livestock: most common type of commercial farming; crops and animals are raised on the same land, with most of the crops going to the animals

• Dairy Farming: important perishable produce with milk sheds to keep them fresh

• Grain Farming: grown mainly for human consumption and is very mechanized. the north american prairies are often referred to as the worlds breadbasket

• Livestock Ranching: commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive area. usually practiced in areas where growing crops is impossible

• Mediterranean: exists near seas and is usually practiced for human consumption. it is mostly horticulture (fruits, vegetables, and flowers)

• Commercial Gardening: main agriculture in southeast us, uses truck farming

Agribusiness- the system of commercial farming in MDCs since farming is integrated into large food production industries (dominant form of agriculture today)

Desertification- the process by which previously fertile lands become arid and unusable for farming.

Intensive Agriculture- Agriculture in which farmers expend a great deal of effort to produce as much yield as possible in a land area

Extensive Agriculture- Agriculture characterized by few inputs and investments in labor and capital, typically resulting in less outcome

Von Thunen Model

States that in absence of topographic features, different farming is conducted at different distances from the city

Market/Dairy: Nearest to town because of the perishable produce 

Forests: Close to market because of the difficult transportation of wood 

Field/Grain: Less perishable items in rotation

Livestock: Outermost ring because of the space necessary for animals

Bid Rent Theory- a geographical economic theory that explains how the price and demand for real estate change as the distance from the central business district (CBD) increases

Patterns of Settlement 

Land use patterns refer to how land is used within a given area it is largely dependent on cultural traditions, the accessibility of resources, and the environment

• Market demand, natural resources, transportation, government, and environment affect it

Rural Settlement Patterns can be clustered, dispersed, linear, nucleated, etc.

Land Surveying: A method for parceling out (dividing) land to its occupants. 

The rectangular survey system makes use of natural features to mark irregular parcels of land 

Unit 6: Cities and Urban Land Use Patterns and Processes

Urban Geography: focus on how cities function, their internal systems and structures, and the external influences on them

• Study of city systems: focuses on where cities are located and why

• Study of internal cities: focuses on internal structures of a city and patterns of land use, transportation,

Megacities- a very large city, typically one with a population of over 10 million people.

Metacities- metacities are urban areas with over 20 million people

World Cities- 3 main are nyc, london, and tokyo. cities are rated and ranked based on their economic, cultural, and political importance to the areas they serve

Edge Cities- cities urbanizing at a quick rate away from the city center

Rank Size Rule- A pattern of settlements in a country, such that the nth largest settlement is 1/n the population of the largest settlement.

 Primate City- largest settlement in a country, if it has more than twice as many people as the second-ranking settlement and is dominant in politics, economics, and culture of the country. It is disproportionately larger.

Megalopolis- multiple cities that have grown together to form the highest level of urban hierarchy

Central Place Theory- created by Walter Christaller, analyzes city location and level of urban economic exchange using hexagonal market areas

• Threshold: the minimum number of people needed to support a service.

• Hinterland: the area surrounding a central place 

• Range: the maximum distance people are willing to travel to use a service.

Core and Periphery Model- describes how economic, political, and/or cultural power is spatially distributed between dominant core regions

• Underdeveloped countries are dependent on developed countries

• Core: area of high growth

• Periphery: neighboring areas

Central Business District (CBD)- nucleus of a city

Concentric Zone Model- shows the cost to cost-to-distance relationship in urban real estate prices

Suburbanization: is a population shift from historic core cities or rural areas into suburbs, resulting in the formation of (sub)urban sprawl.

Sector Model   

Combines concepts of the industrial areas and neighborhood

White flight- people leaving inner-city

areas because of race groups entering

Does not account for modern transportation*

Multiple Nuclei Model

is a city that does not have one central area, but instead has several nodes that act as regional centers for economic or residential activity within one larger city.

Galactic City Model (Peripheral Model)

describes how an urban area consists of an inner city surrounded by large suburban residential and business areas tied together by a beltway or ring road.

Latin American City Model

The latin american city model is a model that describes the layout and organization of cities in latin america. It consists of three main sectors - the elite/wealthy sector, the middle-class sector, and the informal settlements/poverty sector.

Segregation: areas where no law requiring racial separation exists, but it still occurs

• Redlining- refusing someone credit, a loan, or insurance, or adding unfair terms in those contracts based on their race or ethnicity

• Blockblusting- convincing homeowners to move by telling them minorities are moving in

Gentrification: economic reinvestment in existing real estate, can help neighborhoods suffering from deindustrialization

Urban Sustainability: measured in economic and environmental terms such as pollution, waste management, public services etc.

• Development of mass transit and new downtown housing has helped cut down urban sprawl and auto traffic

Unit 7: Industrialization and Economic Development

Primary Sector: This stage involves the extraction and harvesting of natural resources directly from the earth.

• Agriculture, fishing, mining

Secondary Sector: In this stage, raw materials obtained from the primary sector are processed and transformed into finished goods.

• Textiles, machinery, production of goods

Tertiary Sector: This stage involves providing services to individuals and businesses.

• Retail, tourism, entertainment

Quaternary Sector: This stage involves knowledge-based activities that focus on the creation and management of information

• Research, consulting, education, finance, banking

Quinary Sector: This stage involves high-level decision-making and executive functions in organizations

• Executives, government officials, leaders

Industrialization- the process by which economic activities on the earth's surface evolved from 

producing basic goods to factories mass producing goods for consumption

Commodity Chain- explains the links between producers and consumers in the production and distribution of commodities

MDCs- More developed countries with industrialized and services-based economies; these countries have higher levels of productivity and free markets.

James Watt- created the steam engine in the 18th century, which was a major breakthrough for the industrial revolution. This was also a major boost in the textile industry

Gross Domestic Product (GDP)- dollar value of all goods and services produced in a year, measure total volume of economy

Gross National Income (GNI)-  dollar value of all goods and services produced plus value of exports minus imports in a year

Comparative Advantage: means a country has the ability or resources to produce a good or service at less cost and more efficiently than other countries

Spatial Patterns of Industrialization: Industrialization is not uniform. It tends to concentrate in certain regions due to factors such as proximity to markets, access to transportation networks (e.g., ports, railways), availability of labor, and government policies. This leads to Industrial Belys

Rostows Modernization Model- theory suggesting that traditional societies will develop into modern 

societies with the help of industrialization and westernization.

• Traditional Stage: people in traditional societies build their lives around families, local communities, and religion

• Take-off Stage- people experiment with producing goods for commercial purposes 

• Technological Maturity- economic growth is encouraged and the economy diversifies

• High Mass Consumption- economic development raises living standards and mass consumption encourages consumerism 

Dependency Theory- theory suggesting that developing countries are dependent on developed countries, which can hinder their growth.

• Core Countries: rich nations fuel world’s economy by taking raw materials from around

• Peripheral Countries: low income countries support rich ones with cheap labor and items

• Semiperipheral Countries: more powerful that periphery countries, less than cores

Fordism- highly specialized and organized mass production at a single site.

Post-Fordism- shifted production to all around the world, its more flexible

Greenhouse Effect: increase in earths temp caused by carbon dioxide trapping radiation from earths surface

OPEC- objective is to co-ordinate and unify petroleum policies among Member Countries, in order to secure fair and stable prices for petroleum producers

FDI- refers to purchasing an asset in another country, giving direct control to the purchaser over the asset.