M201_CH7

Motivation

• Definition: The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining an organizational goal.

  • Intensity: The amount of effort put forth to meet the goal.

  • Direction: Efforts are channeled toward organizational goals.

  • Persistence: How long the effort is maintained.

Early Theories of Motivation

• Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

• Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

• McClelland's Theory of Needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

• Levels of Needs:

  • Self-Actualization: Achieving one's potential.

  • Esteem: Recognition and respect from others.

  • Social-Belongingness: Acceptance and friendship.

  • Safety-Security: Protection from physical and emotional harm.

  • Physiological: Basic needs such as food and water.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

• Motivation Factors (What causes satisfaction):

  • Quality of supervision

  • Pay

  • Company policies

  • Physical working conditions

  • Relationships

  • Job security

• Hygiene Factors (What causes dissatisfaction):

  • Promotional opportunities

  • Opportunities for personal growth

  • Recognition

  • Responsibility

  • Achievement

McClelland's Theory of Needs

• Need for Achievement (nAch): The drive to excel.

• Need for Power (nPow): The need to influence others' behavior.

• Need for Affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

Characteristics of High Achievers

• Preferences for jobs with:

  • Personal responsibility

  • Feedback

  • Intermediate degree of risk (50/50)

• Note: High achievers are not necessarily good managers.

• Those with high nPow and low nAff tend to find managerial success.

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

• Self-Determination Theory

• Goal-Setting Theory

• Self-Efficacy Theory

• Reinforcement Theory

• Equity Theory

• Expectancy Theory

Self-Determination Theory

• Individuals prefer control over their actions; forced actions reduce motivation.

• Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Introduction of extrinsic rewards can decrease intrinsic motivation.

• Self-Concordance: Pursuing goals aligned with interests and values enhances motivation.

Goal-Setting Theory

• Goals increase performance when:

  • Specific and challenging yet accepted by employees.

  • There is feedback; self-generated feedback is optimal.

• Contingencies in Goal-Setting:

  • Goal commitment: Public goals tend to enhance commitment.

  • Task Characteristics: Simple tasks benefit from clear goals.

  • National Culture: Individual goals align well with Western cultures.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

• Converts overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for individuals and work units.

• Key elements include:

  • Goal specificity

  • Time period allotted

  • Performance feedback

  • Participation in decision-making.

Self-Efficacy Theory

• Belief in one’s capability to perform a task.

• Increased by:

  • Enactive Mastery: Gaining experience.

  • Vicarious Modeling: Observing others succeed.

  • Verbal Persuasion: Encouragement from others.

  • Arousal: Physical and emotional energy.

Reinforcement Theory

• Behavior is a function of its consequences.

• Differentiates between positive and negative reinforcement.

Equity Theory

• Employees compare their input-output ratios with others.

• Six steps to achieve perceived fairness in the workplace.

Organizational Justice

• Distributive Justice: Perceived fairness of outcomes (e.g., pay raises).

• Procedural Justice: Fairness in the processes that lead to outcomes.

• Interactional Justice: Treatment of employees with dignity and respect.

• Organizational Justice: Overall perception of fairness at work.

Equity Theory Continued

• Focus on:

  • Informational Justice: Fairness of communications and interactions.

  • Interpersonal Justice: Respect and dignity in interactions.

  • Understanding cultural values relevant to justice perceptions.

Expectancy Theory

• Three key relationships:

  • Effort-Performance: Belief that effort increases performance.

  • Performance-Reward: Belief that successful performance leads to rewards.

  • Rewards-Personal Goals: Attractiveness of outcomes to individuals.

Motivation

Definition:

The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining an organizational goal.

• Intensity: The amount of effort put forth to meet the goal.

• Direction: Efforts are channeled toward organizational goals.

• Persistence: How long the effort is maintained.

Early Theories of Motivation

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

McClelland's Theory of Needs

Maslow's Hierarchy of Needs Theory

Levels of Needs:

• Self-Actualization: Achieving one's potential.

• Esteem: Recognition and respect from others.

• Social-Belongingness: Acceptance and friendship.

• Safety-Security: Protection from physical and emotional harm.

• Physiological: Basic needs such as food and water.

Herzberg's Two-Factor Theory

Motivation Factors (What causes satisfaction):

• Quality of supervision

• Pay

• Company policies

• Physical working conditions

• Relationships

• Job security

Hygiene Factors (What causes dissatisfaction):

• Promotional opportunities

• Opportunities for personal growth

• Recognition

• Responsibility

• Achievement

McClelland's Theory of Needs

• Need for Achievement (nAch): The drive to excel.

• Need for Power (nPow): The need to influence others' behavior.

• Need for Affiliation (nAff): The desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships.

Characteristics of High Achievers

Preferences for jobs with:

• Personal responsibility

• Feedback

• Intermediate degree of risk (50/50) (Note: High achievers are not necessarily good managers. Those with high nPow and low nAff tend to find managerial success.)

Contemporary Theories of Motivation

Self-Determination Theory

Goal-Setting Theory

Self-Efficacy Theory

Reinforcement Theory

Equity Theory

Expectancy Theory

Self-Determination Theory

• Individuals prefer control over their actions; forced actions reduce motivation.

• Cognitive Evaluation Theory: Introduction of extrinsic rewards can decrease intrinsic motivation.

• Self-Concordance: Pursuing goals aligned with interests and values enhances motivation.

Goal-Setting Theory

Goals increase performance when:

• Specific and challenging yet accepted by employees.

• There is feedback; self-generated feedback is optimal.

Contingencies in Goal-Setting:

• Goal commitment: Public goals tend to enhance commitment.

• Task Characteristics: Simple tasks benefit from clear goals.

• National Culture: Individual goals align well with Western cultures.

Management by Objectives (MBO)

Converts overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for individuals and work units.

Key elements include:

• Goal specificity

• Time period allotted

• Performance feedback

• Participation in decision-making.

Self-Efficacy Theory

• Belief in one’s capability to perform a task.

• Increased by:

  • Enactive Mastery: Gaining experience.

  • Vicarious Modeling: Observing others succeed.

  • Verbal Persuasion: Encouragement from others.

  • Arousal: Physical and emotional energy.

Reinforcement Theory

• Behavior is a function of its consequences.

• Differentiates between positive and negative reinforcement.

Equity Theory

Employees compare their input-output ratios with others. Six steps to achieve perceived fairness in the workplace.

Organizational Justice

• Distributive Justice: Perceived fairness of outcomes (e.g., pay raises).

• Procedural Justice: Fairness in the processes that lead to outcomes.

• Interactional Justice: Treatment of employees with dignity and respect.

• Organizational Justice: Overall perception of fairness at work.

Equity Theory Continued

Focus on:

• Informational Justice: Fairness of communications and interactions.

• Interpersonal Justice: Respect and dignity in interactions.

• Understanding cultural values relevant to justice perceptions.

Expectancy Theory

Three key relationships:

• Effort-Performance: Belief that effort increases performance.

• Performance-Reward: Belief that successful performance leads to rewards.

• Rewards-Personal Goals: Attractiveness of outcomes to individuals.