Chapter 11 | Political Challenges and Changes

11.1 Devolution: Challenges to State Sovereignty

The Processes of Devolution

• Each state, whether old or new, has experienced some evolution to arrive at its present situation.
• Even the oldest and strongest states face a range of pressures that stress their existing structure.
  • This process, termed devolution, can destabilize a state.
• A number of factors can challenge state sovereignty and may lead to the devolution of a state.
• It is useful to look at these factors individually, but more often than not, it is a combination of them that leads to challenges.

Physical Geography

• Devolutionary forces are most often prompted by the distance that exists within a state from its center of power.
  • Recall distance decay: As distance increases, communication decreases.
• These challenges are less great in the modern day, but still play a role.
• States with fragmented physical geography can have challenges with unity.
• It is difficult to build a cohesive state when division is a factor in the state’s physical geography.
  • This can be mountain ranges, scattered islands, deserts, etc.

Ethnic Separatism

• Ethnic separatism: The process by which people of a particular ethnicity in a multinational state identify more strongly as members of their ethnic group than as citizens of the state.
• The root of many cases of ethnic separatism is disparity in how an ethnicity is treated, both culturally and by laws.
  • The people of an ethnic group may feel like they do not have the power and autonomy that they deserve.
  • This is especially common in the case of stateless nations.
• In extreme cases, the state government may attack the ethnic group and try to eliminate it.
  • Ethnic cleansing: The process by which a state attacks an ethnic group and tries to eliminate it through expulsion, imprisonment, or killing
• Destabilization can also occur when a region shares traits with the people of a neighboring state.
  • This can lead to irredentism, occurring when the major ethnicity on one side of a boundary wants to claim land from the other side, in order to reunite with a minority group in that country.
• Advances in communication technology have greatly impacted ethnic identity, sometimes fueling separatist movements.
  • The internet has made it easier for groups to organize their causes.
  • Social media can be used as an easy outlet for sharing and voicing concerns.
• This gives groups power, and a voice, which they wouldn’t have otherwise.

Economic and Social Problems

• Economic divisions within a state often work in tandem with ethnic and geographic pressures to cause devolutionary forces.
  • These divisions can result from variations in economic productivity or development between regions.
• Economic divisions may also arise because of the way funds are allocated.
• Social issues can also destabilize a state.
  • Discrimination can cause rifts between people that act as devolutionary forces.

Responses to Devolutionary Forces

• Just as causes of devolutionary forces are varied, so are responses.
• A state may address devolutionary forces by sharing more power with subnational units.
  • Shifting responsibilities to a specific group or region can remedy an issue by allowing locals to solve the problem as they see fit.
• Devolutionary forces can also lead to sovereignty and self-determination for the people of a region within a country
  • People of a region may push for autonomy within a state.
• Devolutionary forces may result in a shift in a state’s form of governance.
  • States can transition to and from unitary or federal states depending on the conflict.
• When a state cannot resolve devolutionary forces, it may fall apart.

11.2 Supranationalism: Transcending State Boundaries

What is Supranationalism?

• Supranational organization: An alliance of three or more states that work together in pursuit of common goals or to address an issue or challenge
• The goals of supranational organizations might be economic, political, military, cultural; or a combination.
• Some of these organizations have formed under treaties, while others are considered general alliances.
• States join supranational organizations for its benefits, and to avoid disadvantages of not being a member.
• Supranational organizations are especially common during and after large wars, as countries bind together against opposition.

The Key Benefits of Supranationalism

• The collective powers that supranationalism creates benefits member states in many ways.
• One way it can benefit states is economically. Countries can increase trade, bargaining power, and create economies of scale.
  • Economies of scale: Cost reductions that occur when production rises
• If certain members are not economically strong, they can be boosted by fellow member states who are more financially stable.
• Supranational organizations may also benefit through heightened military power.
  • The combination of multiple countries’ militaries can, obviously, be more powerful than one.
• States also benefit from supranationalism through other types of collaboration.
  • Countries can collaborate on scientific findings, and make travel for locals or foreigners easier between member states.

The Key Drawbacks to Supranationalism

• Supranationalism involves making commitments that can challenge the sovereignty of member states.
  • The degree of compromised sovereignty depends on the agreements made.
• Responsibilities associated with membership in any supranational group inevitably limit political and economic ability in some way.
• One of the biggest challenges is the financial distress of certain member states.
  • If one country falls into debt to its own organization, it can suffer from consequences that may have been avoidable had they not joined.
• Countries are also known to disagree on issues for a multitude of reasons, which can lead to delay on solutions as they deliberate.

• Knowing all of the below organizations is not necessary, but this table can be used as a tool to compare purposes and who engages in them.

11.3 Forces that Unify and Forces that Divide

Centripetal Forces

• Recall that a centripetal force is one that unites groups of people.
• In political geography, a centripetal force draws people together and supports the sovereignty of the state.
  • For example, when an attack causes the people to unite against a common foe.
  • When education and the media promote shared culture and language.
  • When policies allow for expression of differences.
• These forces can strengthen, stabilize, and coalesce a state.
• Centripetal forces can be temporary, occurring in the aftermath of an event such as a disaster or fleeting threat.
• Centripetal forces can also be longstanding and help to increase cultural cohesion within a state.
• Singular ethnicity, religion, or language; common social and economic standards; strong infrastructure; a strong leader; and a fair legal system aids in making a national identity.
• Symbols can act as a display of unity within a state and can also be a cause of that unity.
  • National flags often incorporate elements that represent the principles upon which a state was founded.
• Similar to a federation is a confederation, which is also a group of sovereign states that have banded together.
  • In a confederation, the autonomy of each member state is more important than the common government.

Centrifugal Forces

• Recall that a centrifugal force is one that divides groups of people.
• In political geography, it is a force that pulls a state apart or diminishes its ability to govern.
  • For example, when multiple nationalities compete for control.
  • When economic inequality is common.
  • When the infrastructure weakens connections between areas.
• Centrifugal forces can lead to uneven development within a state.
• A country with a weak infrastructure has poor connections between regions and cities.
  • Places that are difficult to reach will be less likely to develop at the same rate as areas with stronger connections.
• Centrifugal forces can also lead to separatist movements.
  • Separatists may want complete secession, or they may just want greater autonomy or recognition.
• While cultural diversity can be a strength, it can also be a centrifugal force in certain circumstances.
  • Differences between groups can be so deeply rooted that unification doesn’t work and conflict still arises.
• Leaders must find a way to balance the interests of the different groups.
  • This is often accomplished with a federal system of government.
• These conflicts can be especially polarizing in countries that have a stateless nation within them.
• When centrifugal forces are strong enough to threaten sovereignty and a state cannot govern, it is said to be a failed state.
• Sovereign states should provide for their citizens:
  • Security from invasion, an effective judicial system, opportunity to participate in politics, assurance of human rights, access to health care and education, transportation and communication, etc.
• Strong states rate highly across these categories. Weak states perform poorly in some or all of these areas.
  • Countries considered failed states usually break down into factions.
  • They often become dangerous places full of conflict and might even descend into civil war.
• Ethnonationalism: The process by which the people of a country identify as having one common ethnicity, religious belief, and language, creating a sense of pride and identity that is tied to the territory; also called ethnic nationalism