chapter 17

Learning Objectives

• Explain how scientists study human sexuality.

• Define human sexuality.

• Distinguish between sex, gender, and sexual orientation.

• Discuss gender differences that exist, and those that do not.

• Understand theories of how gender roles are formed.

• Review common and alternative sexual behaviors.

• Appraise the connection between pleasure, sexual behaviors, and consent.

• Compare the central nervous system and the autonomic nervous system's role in motivating sexual behaviors.

• Understand sexual dysfunctions and their treatments.

Introduction

Sex is a fundamental aspect of human life, influencing emotions and behaviors from infancy through adulthood. Karl Pribram (1958) described sex as one of four primary drive states alongside feeding, fighting, and fleeing, motivating various thoughts and actions related to our survival and well-being. This module encourages an open, scientific exploration of human sexuality, free from societal taboos, covering essential themes such as gender, sexual orientation, fantasies, behaviors, paraphilias, and the concept of sexual consent.

The History of Scientific Investigations of Sex

Human sexuality, an integral part of our existence for over 200,000 years, has been both artfully and scientifically explored. Early artifacts suggest the significance of fertility and sexual love across cultures, while scientific approaches began only around 125 years ago. Pioneering figures like Henry Havelock Ellis utilized case studies to explore sexual phenomena, particularly arousal and masturbation, and his work laid the groundwork for further studies in human sexuality.

Sex vs. Gender vs. Sexual Orientation

• Sex refers to biological differences, such as reproductive organs (ovaries for females and testes for males). The classification of biological sex is complex and involves more than just observable traits.

• Gender encompasses psychological and sociological facets, indicating personal identity and societal roles related to one's sex. Cultural norms associate certain traits and behaviors with masculinity and femininity, leading individuals to adopt gender-specific behaviors often from a young age.

• Sexual Orientation involves the patterns of romantic or sexual attraction one feels toward others, which can vary widely across the spectrum from heterosexuality to homosexuality, including fluid identities.

Development of Gender Roles

As children grow, they internalize cultural norms regarding gender roles based on external attributes, leading to the development of stereotypes. Children learn about gender constructs early, often categorizing activities, interests, and even professions based on gender. Social and psychological theories such as gender schema theory emphasize how children actively construct gender identities, reinforcing societal norms around femininity and masculinity.

Psychological Theories of Gender Role Formation

• Gender Schema Theory: Proposes that children learn about gender through a framework of schemas that categorize traits and behaviors, further solidifying gender stereotypes.

• Social Learning Theory: Suggests that behaviors associated with gender are learned through observation, reinforcement, and modeling—children who behave in line with societal gender expectations are often rewarded, while those who do not may face punishment or social rejection.

Gender Differences: Real vs. Implied

Gender stereotypes can sometimes reflect actual differences, although these differences are often exaggerated. For example:

• Girls develop language skills earlier than boys, but this does not lead to significant long-term differences.

• In terms of aggression, boys tend to show higher rates of physical aggression than girls, although no substantial difference occurs with provoked aggression.

• Stereotypes persist despite considerable overlap in abilities and traits across genders, demonstrating that assumed distinctions often do not predict individual capabilities.

The Social Impact of Gender Stereotypes

Gender stereotypes influence behavior from a young age, reinforcing fixed roles and leading to discrimination. This often manifests in workplace dynamics and societal expectations, sustaining inequalities. Importantly, many cultural perceptions of gender, such as the view of women as needing protection—benevolent sexism—coexist with harmful stereotypes that degrade women—hostile sexism, showcasing the complex nature of societal attitudes towards gender.

Conclusion and Implications

The landscape regarding gender roles and sexual orientation is evolving rapidly, reflecting broader societal changes. Increasing acceptance of diverse identities challenges traditional norms and spurs legislative changes. Continued research and discourse are essential to understand and adapt to this complex societal issue, paving the way for a more inclusive future that acknowledges the spectrum of human experiences.