COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT: INFORMATION-PROCESSING PERSPECTIVES
INFORMATION-PROCESSING THEORIES
Analogy of the mind as a computer.
Information flows through:
A limited-capacity system of mental hardware and software.
Components of the system:
Hardware: Brain and nervous system.
Software: Mental rules and strategies.
MEMORY
Key Questions Regarding Memory:
How does information get into memory?
How is information maintained in memory?
How is information pulled back out of memory?
Three primary processes of memory:
Encoding: Forming a memory code.
Storage: Maintaining encoded information over time.
Retrieval: Recovering information from memory.
THEORY OF MEMORY
Memory can be categorized into three types:
Sensory Memory
Short-Term / Working Memory
Long-Term Memory
RESPONSES IN THE INFORMATION-PROCESSING MODEL
Short-term Storage (Working Memory):
Feeds into attention, which processes environmental input.
Functions:
Sensory Store: Logs input, holds information temporarily, executes operations on information.
Long-Term Memory: Permanent store, retrieval of previously experienced information, information-processing strategies, and knowledge.
Executive Control Processes:
Plan and run each phase of information processing, which includes:
Regulating attention.
Selecting appropriate memory processes and problem-solving strategies.
Monitoring the quality of tentative answers and solutions.
Figure Reference:
A schematic model of the human information-processing system adapted from Atkinson & Shiffrin, 1968.
SENSORY MEMORY
Characteristics:
Brief memory store.
Information constitutes raw sensory data not yet analyzed for meaning.
Key Concepts:
Sensation vs. Perception.
INFORMATION FLOW AND THE MULTISTORE MODEL
Multistore Model Components:
Sensory Store (Sensory Register):
The first information-processing store where stimuli are noticed and processed.
Detects and holds raw sensory input with separate stores for each sense.
Capable of holding large amounts of information but has very limited duration.
SHORT-TERM MEMORY (WORKING MEMORY)
Characteristics:
Temporary memory store with limited capacity.
Can maintain unrehearsed information for up to 20-30 seconds.
Memory Span: 7{ ± }2 items (5-9 pieces).
Forgetting occurs by:
Displacement (information bumped out of STM).
Loss if nothing is done with the information.
LONG-TERM MEMORY
Characteristics:
Permanent storage with unlimited capacity.
Stores all the information one has ever learned.
Types of Long-Term Memory:
Procedural Memory:
Memory for actions, skills, and operations; learned without conscious effort. memory without trying to remember
Declarative Memory:
Handles memory for factual information, subdivided into:
Episodic Memory:
Contains chronological recollections of personal experiences.
Semantic Memory:
Contains general knowledge not tied to specific learning times. ex. vocabulary, grammar, school learning.
RETRIEVAL OF INFORMATION FROM LTM
Methods of Retrieval:
Free Recall:
reproduce information without any retrieval help.
Example: Students recalling names from a previously studied list.
Cued Recall:
reproduce information with a little retrieval help.
Example: Given a prompt or hint to trigger memory.
Recognition:
reproduce information with substantial retrieval help; selecting previously learned information from an array of options.
Difficulty Assessment:
Based on the array of options presented.
Relearning:
Measured by the amount of time saved when learning information a second time compared to the first time
EXAMPLES OF RECOGNITION TEST DIFFICULTY
Example Questions:
The capital of Washington is:
A) Seattle
B) Spokane
C) Tacoma
D) Olympia
Another version with misleading options to illustrate recognition difficulty.
INFORMATION FLOW AND THE MULTISTORE MODEL - EXECUTIVE FUNCTIONS
Control Processes or Executive Functions:
Involved in planning and monitoring what is attended to and done with the information.
Metacognition:
Knowledge of one’s cognitive abilities and processes related to thinking to inform decision-making.
TRANSFER OF INFORMATION FROM STM TO LTM
Methods:
Rehearsal:
A strategy that involves repeating items to retain them.
Semantic Organization:
Grouping stimuli into meaningful clusters for easy retention.
Elaboration:
Adding or creating links between information items to enhance retention and recall.
ELABORATION
Definition:
A memory strategy involving creating meaningful connections between bits of information.
Application:
Particularly useful in learning foreign language vocabulary by associating new words with known ones.
FORGETTING FROM LTM
Reasons for Forgetting:
Failure to encode: Information is never acquired properly.
Decay: Memory fades over time, evidence against this view is acknowledged.
Interference:
Retroactive Interference: New learning interferes with old memories.
Proactive Interference: Old learning interferes with new memories.
EXAMPLES OF INTERFERENCE
Retroactive Interference Example:
Studying economics interferes with recalling previously learned psychology material.
Proactive Interference Example:
Old locker combination hinders recalling a new gym locker combination.
MEMORY DEVELOPMENT
Growth Patterns:
Memory performance increases dramatically from birth until college age.
Influencing Factors:
Basic processes, knowledge, strategy use, metamemory (knowledge about cognitive processes).
BASIC PROCESSES IN MEMORY DEVELOPMENT
Developmental Biology:
Frontal lobe and other brain developments complete by 18 months, impacting memory behavior.
CHANGES IN PROCESSING SPEED
Research Findings by Robert Kail (1992, 1997):
General developmental changes in processing speed observed across various tasks.
Influences:
Biological maturation as the primary influence on age-related speed differences.
CHANGES IN MYELINATION OF NEURONS
Development of myelination and elimination of excess neural synapses aid information processing.
Age-Related Differences:
Myelination of associative areas is not complete until adolescence or early adulthood.
KNOWLEDGE OR SEMANTIC MEMORY
Definition:
Existing knowledge facilitates new information retention.
Chi's Study Example:
Graduate students vs. young chess masters indicate knowledge can enhance memory performance.
KNOWLEDGE BASE AND MEMORY
Studies show experts recall significantly more relevant information than novices of equal intelligence.
Memory Performance:
Better established knowledge leads to improved memory retrieval capabilities.
STRATEGY USE
Influences on Memory Performance:
Effectiveness and number of memory strategies improve with age.
Enhancements in Memorization Strategies:
Older children exhibit more spontaneous and effective use of rehearsal than younger children.
DEFINITION OF REHEARSAL
Rehearsal:
Memory strategy involving repeating items to retain them.
Study by Flavell, Beach & Chinsky:
Research on different grades’ use of rehearsal strategies during memory tasks.
STRATEGY USE - PRODUCTION AND UTILIZATION DEFICIENCIES
Production Deficiency:
Failure to spontaneously generate and utilize known strategies for improved memory.
Utilization Deficiency:
Not benefiting from effective strategies during early stages of acquisition due to mental effort costs.
DEVELOPMENTAL DIFFERENCES IN THINKING
Development of Strategies:
Deliberate strategies employed to aid performance.
Teaching Strategies:
Effective strategies include summarization, mental imagery, self-generated questions, and activating prior knowledge.
DEVELOPMENTAL DIFFERENCES IN INFORMATION-PROCESSING CAPACITY
Assessment Method:
Memory span tests indicate a child’s short-term memory store capacity and reveal reliable age differences.
METAMEMORY
Definition:
Knowledge about memory and memory processes, including awareness of limits and strategies.
Development of Metamemory:
Increases significantly between ages 4 and 12, with younger children displaying limited awareness.
IMPORTANCE OF METACOGNITION
Metacognition:
Critical for higher-order thinking and problem-solving.
Consciously aware processes enhance learning and outcomes.