Global Sustainability and Viticulture

Topic One: Global Sustainability

Sustainability and sustainable development

Sustainability:

·       Meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs – UN Brundtland report 1987 ** most universally accepted def.

·       Sustainability is a goal!

·       Ecosystem equilibrium à humans take resources at the same rate natural systems can replenish (needed to achieve sustainability)

Sustainable development:

·       A process of economic and social change designed to produce an environmentally sustainable economy and just society

·       It’s a pathway towards the goal that encompasses one or more pillars of sustainability

Pillars of sustainability

Environmental:

·       Preserving environment + rational use of resources

·       Maintain biodiversity, improve land, air + water quality

·       Considers economic growth that has little harm to environment

Example – Green Square:

·       Green streets – More vegetation (between median strips + pathways) à more shaded areas à decrease ambient temperature à decrease urban heat island effect

Social:

·       Maintain and improve social equality, considers how to preserve future generations

·       Importance of wellbeing, thriving and inclusivity

Example – Green Square:

·       Green space - 40 parks/ greenspaces à Boost sense of community + connectedness à increased wellbeing (nature bathing)

·       Transport – emphasis on public and active transport à reduces transport costs for residents à saves money for residents + boosts wellbeing

Economic:

·       Improving economic growth + standard of living

·       Monetary value of environmental damage/ natural and rate of growth compared to harm to ecological systems

Example – Green Square

·        Concentrated services (nearby businesses e.g. Woolworths) à generates income and creates jobs for residents à boosts economy

Cultural:

·       Protecting, developing and expressing values and cultural diversity

·       Diverse beliefs and practise are integral for cohesion and belonging

Example – Green Square:

·       Green Space – boosts cultural integration

Principles of ecologically sustainable development

Precautionary principle:

·       Recognized limits of science to foresee real/potential damage to the result

·       Guides action in times of scientific uncertainty regarding environmental impact

·       Beyond conventional environmental management, preventing future damage

Example –

·       Dec. 2023 – during building of $1.25b road project (WA), precautionary principle was used to overturn project as it would potentially wipe out a pop. of 72 critically endangered western ringtail possums.

Intergenerational equity:

·       Present gen. ensuring the health, diversity and productivity of environment is maintained to benefit future gens.

·       Intra-generational equity – within current gen. have a right to benefit from earth’s resources

Example –

·       How the Indigenous people use to care for land, believed they had the responsibility to care for the land, ensuring it would benefit 7 future generations

Conservation of biodiversity:

·       Ensure proper ecosystem functioning (providing correct natural resources and ecological services)

·       Essential for maintained and evolution of earth’s natural systems

Example –

·       AUS economic status as mega diverse region à makes environmental conservation + ecological integrity crucial

·       Biodiversity provides $125 t ecological services + resources per year

Ecological integrity:

·       Maintaining the diversity and quality of ecosystems

·       Enhancing capacity to adapt to change + provide to the needs of future generations

Example –

·       The role of forest ecosystems in preserving ecological integrity à carbon sequestration, produce + filter O2 + promote infiltration

Challenges in planning for + achieving sustainability

(only need to know 3 –-> 2 in depth and one surface level)

Deforestation + land degradation:

·       Climate change – intensifies climate change at a dramatic rate, trees absorb CO2 through photosynthesis acting as carbon sinks. However, deforestation is turning carbon sinks into net carbon emitters worsening climate change by raising global temps. – environmental pillar

·       Effect on Humans – particularly indigenous, loss of trees à destruction of homelands and resources, forces many communities to migrate as their homes and resources are compromised à relocation to urban areas à complete lifestyle change – social pillar

·       Effect on Humans example – amazon rainforest home to 1+ mil indigenous with 400+ tribes

·       Food security – through loss of biodiversity, effects weather patterns and soil degradation à decreased agricultural productivity à compromising the food availability of indigenous tribes and animals

·       Food security example – amazon deforestation contributes 40% to the decline in pasture productivity

Biodiversity loss:

·       Biodiversity is the basis of all ecosystems

·       Loss of even a single species has massive flow on effect to food webs+ energy flows à effecting ecosystem function

·       Due to – intensive ag., overfishing, acid rain, climate change

·       Upsets the balance of nature àincreases ecosystem vulnerability + decreased reliance to disruptions

·       Ecosystems are interdependent and operate due to interactions between abiotic and biotic components – loss of biodiversity damages the way in which abiotic and biotic components interact

·       1 mil plant and animals are now threatened with extinction

·       5% of species are at risk of extinction from CO2 warming alone à link to deforestation and climate change

Climate change:

·       Rapid and intensifying changes in the climate

·       Climate change à has enhanced the severity and frequency of natural disasters i.e. floods, droughts, wildfires and hurricanes

·       Climate change has led to significant increase in global temps. with global temps on tract to rise 2.7 deg C by the end of the century

·       Climate change has also lead to rising sea levels and change in rainfall patterns

Opportunities in planning for + achieving sustainability

Global Scale – UN SGDs:

·       Provides shared blueprint for peace and prosperity for people and plant, for current and future generations

·       Urgent calls for action by all countries in global partnership

·       Goals were unanimously adopted by 193 member states (countries in the UN) in 2015

·       These countries committed to achieving these goals through their national policies and international cooperation

** SDGs to remember:

·       13 – climate action

·       14 – life below sea

·       15 – life on land

·       7 – affordable and clean energy

·       12 – responsible consumption and production

·       11 – sustainable cities and communities

** Know the number and title, link SDG’s to pillars of sustainable development

Global scale - Global Forums:

·        network of policymakers + interest groups, collaborating as a committee to solve problems requiring global solution

Example –

·       OEDC - international organization, setting standard + analysing economics + related policy areas

Global Scale – Intergovernmental initiatives:

·       2+ govs. Working together to solve problems/ discuss progress surrounding global interest

Example –

·       The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) – focuses on global sustainability, producing annual reports summarising current info regarding climate change risk, impacts and strategies for mitigation + adaptation à link to SDG 13

Non-Gov. Organisations (NGOs):

·       Environmental or humanitarian focus, independent from gov.  or political parties – can occur at all scales

·       Often non for profit and rely on volunteer work

Example –

·       SURFAID – Indonesia, focus on improving live of women and children in rural communities, in past year à 104+ new health centres were established

Local Government action – northern beaches council:

·       Renewable energy – all council sites are now powered by 100% renewable energy à decreased emissions by 80% - link to SDG 7

Community Organisations:

·       Informal, small group often unfunded, voluntary and diverse

·       Crucial for achieving national sustainable development targets

Example –

·       Try Oster women association – Gambia, gained fishing rights for women + developed oyster harvesting, processing + distribution à link to SDG 14 +5

Individual actions:

·       Individual passion/ action à group action à grass root projects

Examples –

·       Worm farming/ compost à decreased food waste and decreased green house gases

·       Purchasing from local businesses à locally grow food (decreases food miles – transport) à decreased emissions produced through transport

Planning for sustainability

Planning for sustainability:

·       Despite current global focus on sustainability, due to varying perspectives about natural resource extraction + use, planning for + managing sustainability is extremely difficult and complex

Murray Darling Basin Spatial Pattern:

·       Southeast side of AUS

·       Covers 75% of NSW, 60% of VIC and 15% of QLD

·       AUS largest water catchment

·       1400km long + 1200km wide

MDB Stakeholders:

1.      Farmers à 8400 use the MDB, believe they should have priority regarding water usage and sustainable water use as it should be preserved for future generations.

2.      Federal Gov à $30 million contributed to the economy (large source of money for national economy), environmental conservation à split decision must ensure balance between environment and economic

3.      Indigeous à strong connection to country crucial for spirituality and cultural practises, main water source à minimise water extraction to keep ecological integrity

4.      State gov à spans into 4 states (like federal gov.)

5.      Residents MDB à 2.4 million residents who use for recreation, split perspectives on use and conservation

6.      Environmentalists à

Indigenous practise and benefit sharing

Stewardship:

·       Stewardship – having values aligned to a responsibility for the natural world and caring for nature

·       Stewardship example – indigenous practises such as the law of hunt à not killing female species cause of reproduction

·       Stewardship example – nomadic farming à the continual movement allows the land to rejuvenate

Totems:

·       Symbol acknowledging specific flora or fauna, which are considered sacred to their owners

·       Indigenous cannot hunt, kill or desecrate their totem out of respect for elders à way of species conservation

Law of Hunt:

·       Ritual to maintain land + replenish the food supply

·       Guided by a sense of responsibility to their environment and ancestors

·       Created conservation zones

Cultural burning:

·       Use of cool fire to rejuvenate native vegetation and prevent wildfires

·       Involved lighting low fires with matches or firesticks in small areas, then closely monitoring the fires

Benefit sharing:

·       Indigenous right to benefit from resource development and participate in decision making, determining priorities in development + planning which directly affects them

·       Sharing economic benefits with indigenous in regional locations, through providing jobs, training and procurement opportunities.

·       Strengthened engagement practises and collaborative partnerships between resource development and first nations communities

·       First nations people have strong local and cultural knowledge that informs AUS on how to achieve net 0 + have social and economic success

·       60+% of AUS resource projects operate on land covered by native title or determination à first nations people have the right to refuse consent or veto any land access use proposals

Topic Two: Viticulture

Nature and Spatial pattern

Definition:

·       Viticulture - cultivation and harvesting of grapes, especially the production of wine (specialised form of agriculture)

·       Winemaking - is the crushing and fermenting of grapes to make wine

Scale of Viticulture:

·        2023, global production fell 10% from 2022

·       2023 - totalling 237 mil hectolitres + $333 million global revenue à lowest output since 1961

Grape species:

·        1000 grape varieties used selected based on desired wine characteristics + vineyard location.

·       The wine grape – thick skin + smaller à more concentrated flavour.

·       The wine grape - Sweeter than regular grapes à important cause sugar become alcohol during fermentation

Estate and Blended wine:

·       Estate wine – made from grapes in a single vineyard owned by winery à reflection of land and culture, smaller scale, harder to obtain + expensive. Wine flavour changes

·       Blended wine – made from grapes from a variety of vineyards. Most world brands + larger scale à made in bulk. Wine flavour doesn’t change

Grape growing regions:

·       30 – 50 deg N+S of equator à Mediterranean climate

·       10 – 20 degrees C

·       700ml rainfall annually

Old and New world regions:

·       Old world – Europe based, strict regulations which govern wine making (e.g. application policy): Tuscany Italy, Bordeaux France, Mosel Germany. Focus on terroir

·       New world – Mediterranean climate, not branded based on regulations/ traditions. Focus on wine flavour consistency + emphasis on tech: Chile, coastal Cali, SW AUS

Wine Production:

·       OIV (international org. of Wine and Vine) 2023

-          France no 1. Producer, accounting for 20% global production

-          Italy no. 2 + Spain no 3. à however, wine production in EU has declined by 20% due to climate change

-          AUS à 6^th largest producer, production decreased 26% due to adverse weather

Wine consumption:

·       EU 48% of global consumption – France is the 2^nd highest global consumer

·       USA is largest global consumer

·       AUS – consumption has remained stable, ranked 11^th globally for wine consumption

Current trends and future directions

Growth in Indian market:

·       India is transforming into one of the most promising wine markets with imports growing by 500% in 2023

·       The growth of the middle class àmore wealth à ability to buy wine which was seen as a more prestigious drink

·       Cultural shiftà wine replacing traditional spirits

·       In the next 5 -10 years, number of wine consumers in India could exceed 50 million

Decline in global consumption:

·       Wine consumption in AUS has declined by 9% from 2020 – 2022, AUS has seen a consistent decline in wine consumption

·       Further decline in consumption in AUS is predicted

The sustainability of Viticulture + Strategies used to achieve sustainability

** link to conservation of biological diversity and conservation of ecological integrity – criteria for evaluation

Challenge one – Emissions:

·       0.5 – 1.2 kg of CO2 per bottle on av.

·       Emissions produced by: Use of fertilizers release nitrous oxide – greenhouse gas. Transport to bottling facility and wine distribution and emphasis on monoculture à reduced biodiversity and limit to ecosystem capacity for carbon sequestration

·       CO2 emissions à Increased GHG into atmosphere à enhanced greenhouse effect à warming of atmosphere à changing of atmospheric systems à climate change

·       Traditional viticulture isn’t sustainable

Solution One –IWCC and Renewable energy:

·       International wineries of climate change (IWCC) – collaborative group committed to finding and accelerating innovative solution to decarbonise the wine industry

·       Organic viticulture – sustainable energy production à using renewable energy

-          Example – Tamburlaine à 100% solar powered à eliminates fossil fuel use for energy àeliminating carbon emissions

Challenge two – monoculture:  

·       Monoculture à decreased biodiversity à decreased energy flows and limited energy pathways à smaller food webs à decreased sustainability

·       Monoculture à decreased nutrient in soils due to less biodiversity (à low amounts of leaf litter) à soil degradation (decreased fertility and structure due to limited organic matter) à decreased ability to hold moisture

·       Monoculture à decreased ecosystem resilience due to diminished ecological integrity

Solution two – Companion planting + Organic compost (used at Tamburlaine):

·       Companion planting à counteract monoculture in organic production of wine. More plant species increased the number of insects which improves the vineyards biodiversity à improved energy flows + pathways à more energy cycling

·       Organic compost à vertical compost unit (VCU): grape seeds, skins and steams with herbivore manure and castings from worm farm à organic fertiliser for vines à Adds organic matter à improves soil structure and chemistry (combats effects of monoculture)

Challenge three – Agrichemicals:

·       Agrichemicals applied to soils à kills microorganisms and decomposers --. Slows/ stops decomposition of organic matter à decreased functioning of nutrient cycling à degraded soils

·       Less microorganisms à loss of energy flows and pathways

·       Runoff into waterways à More nutrient load in water à Eutrophication à Decreased photosynthesis levels of aquatic plants à disruption to food webs

·       Use of agrichemicals detracts from sustainability as earths natural systems aren’t operating effectively

Solution three – grey water digestion pond (used at Tamburlaine):

·       Receives winery wastewater, which is turned form anaerobic to aerobic by aerating the water (aerobic water is nutrient rich and used as fertiliser) à  liquid worm compost is addedà creating organic fertiliser which is pumped through irrigation systems into vines

Packamama PET flat bottles

Packamama + PET flat bottle overview:

·       Packamama is a UK Org. fighting against global warming by providing climate friendly drink packaging – link to SDG 12

·       PET flat bottles have been adopted globally – Sweden, Norway, Denmark and AUS à Tamburlaine (only bottling facility for PET FBs in AUS)

PET flat bottle analyse:

·       Significantly contributes to environmental pillar + has significant positive environmental impact through offering CO2 emission reduction and recyclability

·       100% recycled PET à reduces amount of virgin plastic produced à 100% recyclable (however/ only if region has appropriate PET recycling facilities  à if lacking facilities bottles could end up in landfill)

·       Flat space efficient bottle shape à 71% more bottles fit on a pallet during transportation and warehousing à up to 50% reduction in CO2 emissions during transportation

·       Negative connotations surrounding plastic + lack of aesthetic appeals à may make consumers hinder or opt for a glass bottle as more universally known

Climate most significant factor

·       Determines where grapes can be grown à globally: determines spatial pattern

·       Determines length of growing season, rate of plant growth, quality and quantity of fruit

·       Mediterranean climate is most suitable – wet winter provides soil moisture for early spring growth à hot, dry and sunny summer promotes ripening 

Temperature + sunlight

·       Ideal av. temps à 19 deg C for white grapes + 21 deg C for red grapes

·       Vines won’t produce grapes suitable in temps av annual temps less than 10 deg C. Ideal av temps à vine produce sugar surplus which is crucial for growth

·       Sunlight à needed for heat production and photosynthesis (1500 hours each growing season)

Rainfall

·       Approx. 700ml annual rainfall, ideal in winter and spring

·       Heavy rain during harvest à cause ripe grapes to split + develop fungal diseases (use of irrigation in drier climates to supplement ideal rainfall)

·       France has restricted by appellation policy à restricts water supply to only natural rainfall

·       Hail à damage grapes, leaves and vines (use of hail cannonsà shock wave generator disrupts formation of hail in hunter valley to mitigate hail problem)

Topography and aspect

·       Aspect à effect growing qualities of vine.

·       North facing slopes in SH are preferred in cooler climates, hotter climates the opposite slopes are preferred

·       Aspect can provide shelter from cooling winds and extra warmth in high altitudes

·       Lapse rate lengthens ripening period and increases grape acidity

Soil

·       Terroir – explains relationship between soil, landscape and climate

·       France/ Old World – maintain mineral comp and organic content of soil, as they believe it nourishes the vine and flavours the wine

·       Appellation is a legally defined and protected geographical indication used to identify where grapes for a wine were grown

·       The right terroir and appellation can give grape growers and wine producers significant advantage as these regions are world renowned and highly sought after e.g. champagne

·       New world – soil should be free draining, low – moderate fertility, strong moisture storing capacity and ability to absorb and store heat: limestone-based soils and permeable clay loams

Supply and demand

Past 2 decades show imbalance in wine supply and demand

Demand:

·       Italy and France à decline in consumption: France decline from 73L in 1990 to 47.4 L in 2022

·       USA and AUS à USA increased consumption; USA is now biggest wine consumer.

·       Asia à decline from 2018 (post a significant incline) due to covid 19 à increased wine prices. Original increase due to wine seen a prestigious gift and rise of middle class

·       Decreased demand à increased competition due to wider range of alcoholic beverages appealing to younger audience + increase low – non-alcoholic drinks

Supply:

·       Production exceeds consumption à decreased wine prices

·       Wine oversupply (wine glut) peaked in 2004 à decline trend in production

·       Old world à production decreased, due to competition with new world

·       New world à Increased production, due to growing popularity (wine consistency and price)

Competitive advantage

Competitive advantage à features that give a producer an advantage in market

·       Enables countries/regions to produce higher quality/ better price wine

·       Europe CA – close to major wine markets, quality reputation based on tradition, strong demand in non-European markets and ideal climate

·       NW increased demand à Shift in EU’s CA as they have primarily OW wines

·       AUS CA – lower land cost, ideal climate, moderate availability to water and free of strict appellation controls

Wine tourism fastest growing

·       Wine tourism is dependent on a country’s tourism levels – significant in AUS

·       Domestic and international tourism is increasing, and visitor expeditor is at a peak

·       Advantageous to producers who engage in wine tourism à brand exposure à increased sales through cellar door experience and increased loyalty via membership to wine club

Spatial technologies

·       Assist in site selection of a vineyard, regarding microclimate, slope, aspect and soil composition

Example –

·       Use of drones allows viticulturalists to act once vineyard conditions have been identified

Water storage and management

·       Irrigation technologies use soil moisture probs to monitor water availability to vines – adjusting output of irrigation accordingly

Example –

·       Drip irrigation allows for careful monitoring and can yield significant water savings

Biotechnology

·       Use of cloning to achieve consistent grape quality.

·       Development of Vitus Vinifera grapes which don’t need pesticides and have more resistant roots

·       Development of wines which enhance health benefits

Example –

·       Gene editing techniques à CRISPR

Transport and communication

·       New technologies enable more efficient distribution of wine enabling the maintenance of wine consistency

·       Databases used to record every aspect of wine production to the point of sale enabling winemakers to track and reproduce high quality wine

Example –

·       AR AND VR à enhance wine experience for consumers and can be used to create interactive labels and VR cellar door experiences

National governments

·       Actively support their countries producers by providing support and protection allowing the industry to remain profitable

·       Support in the form of subsides

·       Protective measures – protect AUS brands from overseas competition

-          Tariffs – makes the imported brand more expensive à less competitive against AUS wines

-          Quotas – gov imposed trade restriction limiting the number/ monetary value of goods a country can import or exportà helps regulate volume of trade between countries

-          Technical regulation and standards – meet standards within AUS to prevent cheaper wines that aren’t produced to the same standards from entering the market

Bilateral trade agreements

·       Agreement between 2 countries giving each partner favoured trading status

Example –

·       Aus gov developed agreements with China and US (due to population size and potential)

Appellation d’Origine Controlle (AOC)

·       Appellation policy à French certification system, which defines and protects the origin and quality of certain agricultural products

·       Ensures that wine is produced in specific geographical regions using established methods reflecting cultural and historical heritage, e.g. Champagne (large influence in OW regions – Europe)

TNC’s

·       Corporate takeovers and mergers (via globalisation) à large internation wine corporations

·       TNC’s à concentration of ownership and control of market, making to very difficult for smaller wine companies to compete

·       Mergers of smaller wine companies à TNC’s

·       TNC’s control global wine prices à decreased competition as smaller business are unable to compete with their prices however positively impacts consumers (able to buy wine at cheap price)

·       Expansion of large companies provides them with advantages of economies of scale à can reduce costs and increase profit margins

-          Logistics costs

-          Bulk buying

Boutique wineries

·       Characteristic of the OW

·       Differentiate and personalise the product à unachievable in large scale corporations

·       Offer cellar door experiences and unique wines that are custom to local terroir à boutique wineries have been enhanced through wine tourism

OVI – international organisation of vine and wine

·       Paris based intergovernmental org makes recommendations of growing, winemaking and regulatory matter à form the basis of wine related laws in many countries e.g. application policy is France