Russia and Japan: Industrialization Outside the West

Industrialization before the 1960s occurred significantly in Russia and Japan outside the Western context.
The socio-economic contexts of both countries were shaped by distinct traditions and responses to Western influence.
The juxtaposition of educational reforms led by key figures like Yukichi Fukuzawa in Japan with the Russian reform efforts highlights the varying paths taken by both nations.

Background: An influential educational reformer advocating modernization in Japan during the late 19th century.
Views on Western Education: Fukuzawa believed Western education, especially in wealth, military power, and happiness metrics, was superior. He famously remarked in 1899, “When I compare the two… I have to put the Orient below the Occident.”
Critique of Confucianism: He argued that Confucianism's undervaluation of science and mathematics, along with its lack of independence, hindered Japan.
Cultural Dilemma: Navigating between promoting Western learning and respecting Japanese traditions. He later synthesized both teachings, suggesting a reconciliation between Western insights and Confucian values.

Russia’s reform movement initiated in 1861 with the emancipation of serfs.
Conservative resistance to change, particularly following the 1812 Napoleonic invasion, where Russian elites turned inward to preserve traditional values.

Negative Impact of Serfdom: The reliance on serfdom was seen as an obstruction to progress and modernization.
Inward Looking Politics: Following the Decembrist Revolt of 1825, political repression intensified, curbing liberal and revolutionary thoughts.

Significance of Reform: Emancipation was intended to stimulate economic activity but resulted in new grievances rather than a substantial lifting of peasant standards.
Lack of Political Rights: After emancipation, serfs gained no national rights and remained tethered to villages through redemption payments to landowners.

Creation of Railroads: The establishment of the trans-Siberian railway was pivotal in linking Russian territories and fostering economic growth.
State Involvement in Industry: Lack of a pre-existing middle class compelled the Russian government to lead industrial efforts, which included significant capital investment from the state in factories and infrastructure.
Foreign Investments: Under Minister of Finance Sergey Witte, Russia solicited foreign investments, leading to the rapid growth of heavy industries like steel and petroleum.

Living and Working Conditions: Harsh, unsanitary conditions for factory workers, leading to increased unrest among the working class; inadequate living conditions exacerbated by long working hours without proper breaks.
Example Reports from the 1880s: Many workers had to live in dreary conditions, often sleeping at work. Wages were controlled strictly, and arbitrary fines were common, leading to greater worker discontent.

Response to Western Pressure: Japan, after centuries of isolation, faced a stark reality with Commodore Perry’s 1853 arrival prompting reevaluation of policies.
Emergence of Modernization (1868) Under Emperor Meiji: The Meiji Restoration sought to overhaul Japan’s sociopolitical structure while retaining key aspects of its identity.

Abolishment of Feudal Practices: The Meiji government abolished the feudal system, decentralizing power from the elite daimyōs to a more centralized bureaucratic state.
Adoption of Western Technologies: Emphasis on education, particularly technical and scientific training, aimed at enabling Japan to compete on a world stage while maintaining Japanese cultural identity.

Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): Victory over China marked Japan’s rise as a formidable power in Eastern Asia, signaling its emergence into the imperialist arena.
Russo-Japanese War (1904-1905): Japan's surprising victory over Russia established its reputation and influence, challenging Western stereotypes about Asian capabilities.

Japan vs. Russia: Both nations sought modernization and industrialization; Japan's efforts were marked by successful adaptations of Western practices without losing its cultural framework, unlike Russia, which faced significant internal dissent arising from rapid societal changes amid incapacity to fully modernize.

Previous experience of cultural borrowing; each nation previously learned from external sources (China for Japan and Byzantium for Russia).
Engagement of state apparatus in driving industrialization, as opposed to relying on private enterprises, which was characteristic of Western nations.

In both Russia and Japan, education reforms sought to improve national literacy and intellectual engagement among the populace, playing a critical role in shaping modern identities.

While Japan managed to suppress revolutionary impulses through nationalism, Russia’s reform attempts generated significant unrest, ultimately setting the stage for future upheaval in the early 20th century.

In both cases, industrialization was intertwined with socio-political transformations: while Japan experienced a relatively controlled evolution leading to imperial strength, Russia's chaotic transition sowed the seeds for revolution and systemic change during the coming decades.

Figures and Maps: Visual representations provide context on educational initiatives, industrial growth, and shifts in societal norms through both incremental and drastic changes.

Both Russia and Japan’s paths reflect diverse responses to industrialization pressures within a broader global context of rising nationalism, struggles for power, and evolving identities amidst a changing world.