Land-Based Empires and Gunpowder Empires

Land-Based Empires (1450-1750)

Overview

  • Great land-based empires existed before 1450 and after 1750, but reached their peak between these years.
  • Significant empires included the Songhai, Safavids, Mughals, Ottomans, and Manchus (Qing Dynasty).
  • These were multiethnic states with direct political control over large regions and overland trade routes.
  • After 1750, land-based empires declined due to ethnic identities, ocean trade routes, and economic shifts.

Expansion

  • Empires measured power in land, frequently warring with neighbors.
  • The Manchus (Qing Dynasty) tripled their land by 1711, starting in 1644.

Centralization

  • Empires prospered by consolidating power in central governments.
  • They used bureaucratic elites to enforce laws and military professionals for defense.
  • Tributes from weaker states and taxes from citizens funded these systems.
  • Great palaces, religious buildings, and shrines demonstrated wealth and power.

Belief Systems

  • Empires were often tied to particular religious faiths, intertwining political and religious conflicts.
  • Examples:
    • Europe: Roman Catholics and Protestants fought wars.
    • Asia: Safavids (Shi’a Muslims) and Mughals (Sunni Muslims) were often at war.

Timeline

  • 1453: Ottoman Empire conquers Constantinople.
  • 1521: Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther.
  • 1547: Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) becomes Tsar of Russia.
  • 1556: Akbar begins his rule of the Mughal Empire.
  • 1603: James I takes the English throne, advocating the divine right of monarchs.
  • 1643: Louis XIV of France takes power.
  • 1644: Manchus invade China, establishing the Qing Dynasty.
  • 1722: Afghan forces rebel, weakening the Safavid Empire.

Expansion of European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires (1450-1750)

Gunpowder Empires

  • Term refers to large, multiethnic states in Southwest, Central, and South Asia.
  • These empires relied on firearms to conquer and control territories.
  • Included Russia, the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires.
  • These societies were militaristic but left artistic and architectural legacies.

Europe

  • 1450 marked the end of the medieval period and the start of the early modern period.
  • New monarchies centralized power by controlling taxes, the army, and religion.
  • Examples: Tudors in England, Valois in France, and Isabella and Ferdinand in Spain.
  • Bureaucracies increased, and the middle class gained power.

Russia

  • Russia was a pivotal position for trade between East and West.
  • Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) crowned Tsar in 1547, expanded eastward using gunpowder.
  • He took control of the khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia.
Control of the Volga River
  • Ivan IV allowed the Stroganovs to hire Cossacks to fight local tribes and the Siberian khan to expand east for the fur trade.
  • Control of the Volga River allowed Moscow to trade directly with Persia and the Ottoman Empire.
Expansion to the Pacific
  • Russia continued east into Siberia, with fur traders and militias defeating indigenous tribes.
  • Missionaries converting natives to Eastern Orthodox faith followed.
  • By 1689, Russians reached the Pacific Ocean, with explorations to Alaska (1741) and California (1814).

East Asia

  • China's Yuan Dynasty (Mongol) overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368.
  • Ming rulers stabilized the region for nearly 300 years.
  • In 1644, the Manchu seized power and established the Qing Dynasty (until 1911).
Ming Dynasty
  • Expanded China, conquering lands in Mongolia and Central Asia.
  • The Great Wall of China was restored and expanded for protection against invaders from the north.
Qing Dynasty
  • Emperor Kangxi (ruled 1661-1722) presided over stability and expansion.
    • Sent forces into Taiwan, Mongolia, and Central Asia.
    • Imposed a protectorate over Tibet.
  • Emperor Qianlong (ruled 1736-1796) initiated military campaigns west of China.
    • Annexed Xinjiang, which caused mass killings of the local population (Uighurs).
  • The Qing Dynasty sold limited trading privileges to European powers, confined to Guangzhou (Canton).
    • Emperor Qianlong rejected increased trade with Britain in 1793.
  • The Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt, leading to the White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804).
    • The Qing government suppressed the uprising brutally.

Rise of the Islamic Gunpowder Empires

  • The leaders of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires shared traits:
    • Descendants of Turkic nomads from Central Asia.
    • Spoke a Turkic language.
    • Took advantage of Mongol khanate breakup.
    • Relied on gunpowder weapons.
  • The initial success was due to military might and weakness of replaced regimes.
The Rule of Tamerlane
  • Tamerlane (Timur the Lame) invaded Central Asia and the Middle East, setting the stage for Turkic empires.
  • He led an army from Samarkand, conquering Persia and India.
  • The ghazi ideal (blending nomadic culture with Islamic holy war) served as a model for warriors.
  • Tamerlane’s conquest included the massacre of some 100,000 Hindus before Delhi.
  • He encouraged learning and the arts in Samarkand.
  • Tamerlane used gunpowder to build a government dependent on his military and artillery.
  • His empire lacked an effective political structure, leading to economic ravage.
  • His rule highlighted conflict between Mongols and Islamic forces.
The Ottoman Empire
  • By the 15th century, it was a major power, extending into modern-day Turkey, the Balkans, North Africa, and Southeast Asia
  • Founded by the Osman Dynasty in the 1300s, lasting until 1922.
Mehmed II
  • Mehmed II (The Conqueror, ruled 1451-1481) established Istanbul (Constantinople) as the capital in 1453.
  • The city controlled the Bosporus Strait, linking the Aegean Sea with the Black Sea.
  • The armies seized lands around the Black Sea and moved into the Balkans.
  • Mehmed strengthened the Ottoman navy and attacked areas of Italy.
Suleiman I
  • The Ottoman Empire reached its peak under Suleiman I (ruled 1520-1566).
  • His armies overran Hungary in 1526 and reached the gates of Vienna by 1529.
  • In 1522, Suleiman’s navy captured Rhodes.
  • The Ottoman navy took control of Tripoli in North Africa in the 1550s.
  • The state adapted to new pressures, with reforms in the 18th century.
The Safavids
  • The Safavid dynasty originated in the Safavid order of Sufism in the Azerbaijan region (Iran).
  • Ismail conquered most of Persia and pushed into Iraq, proclaiming himself Shah in 1501.
  • The Safavid Empire lacked a navy and natural defenses but rose to power in the 1500s due to land-based military might and leadership.
Shah Abbas I
  • Shah Abbas I (Abbas the Great, ruled 1588-1629) presided over the Safavid Empire at its height.
  • His troops included soldiers from Georgia in Russia.
  • Abbas imported weaponry from Europe and relied on European military advisors.
  • Shi’a Islam served as a unifying force, denying legitimacy to Sunnis.
  • Hostilities with the Ottoman Empire (Sunni Islam) were frequent.
  • Conflicts arose over control of overland trade routes, with Ottoman trade embargoes against Safavid silk traders.
Role of Women
  • Safavid women had access to rights under Islamic law.
Mughal India
  • In the 1520s, Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane, founded a 300-year dynasty when India was in disarray.
  • He completed conquests in northern India and formed a central government.
Akbar
  • Akbar, Babur’s grandson, achieved religious and political goals.
  • The Mughal Empire was one of the richest and best-governed states.
  • Overseas trade flourished, conducted mostly by Arab traders.
  • The caste system divided Hindu people into four categories: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
  • Outside of the system were the achhoots, or Dalits (untouchables).

Decline of the Gunpowder Empires

  • The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires declined as Western Europe grew in strength.
  • Russia modernized and reorganized its army, unlike the Islamic empires.
Decline of the Ottoman Empire
  • In 1571, a European force defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto.
  • After Suleiman, weak sultans and strong European neighbors led to its decline.
  • The empire became known as the "Sick Man of Europe."
  • British and French involvement in Ottoman territories, Greece’s independence (1821), and Russian expansion weakened the empire.
Safavid Decline
  • Ineffectual leaders and excessive military spending weakened the economy.
  • In 1722, Safavid forces failed to quell a rebellion by oppressed Sunni Pashtuns in Afghanistan.
  • Afghan forces sacked Isfahan, ending centralization and tax collection.
  • The Safavid Dynasty declined until replaced by the Zand Dynasty in 1760.
Mughal Decline
  • Aurangzeb (ruled 1658-1707) inherited an empire weakened by corruption and failure to modernize militarily.
  • Aurangzeb drained the treasury and caused peasant uprisings through an austere Islamic lifestyle intolerant of other religions (Sikhs, Hindus).
  • Revolts among Hindu and Islamic princes increased instability.
  • The British and French gained more economic power, with the British taking political power in the 19th century.

Empires: Administrations (1450-1750)

Centralizing Control in Europe

England
  • King James I believed in the divine right of kings.
  • The Tudors relied on justices of the peace to maintain peace and carry out laws.
  • Parliament (established in 1265) checked the monarch’s powers.
  • In 1689, William and Mary signed the English Bill of Rights, assuring civil liberties.
Absolutism in France
  • The French government became more absolute in the 17th and 18th centuries.
  • Henry IV listened to Jean Bodin, who advocated the divine right of the monarchy.
  • Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu centralized government, developing the system of intendants (royal officials).
  • Louis XIV (The Sun King) espoused divine right and was a virtual dictator.
  • Louis combined lawmaking and the justice system, keeping nobles close at Versailles.
  • Refusal to share power eventually weakened the French government.

Reigning in Control of the Russian Empire

  • Social hierarchy: noble landowning class (boyars), merchants, and peasants (serfs).
Efforts of Ivan IV
  • Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) punished boyars who opposed expansion.
  • He established a paramilitary force, the oprichnina, loyal to him.
Peter the Great
  • The Romanov Dynasty took control in 1613.
  • Peter the Great gained control by defeating his half-sister Sophia and the Streltsy.
  • Peter reorganized the government, creating provinces and a senate.

Centralizing Control in the Ottoman Empire

  • Ottoman sultans used a selection system called devshirme to staff the military and government.
  • Christian boys were recruited by force to serve in the Ottoman government.
  • The Janissaries were elite forces in the Ottoman army.

Centralizing Control in East and South Asia

China
  • The Ming Dynasty wanted to erase the influence of Mongol rulers.
  • They brought back the civil service exam, improved education, and reestablished the bureaucracy.
  • The Qing government used military control to put down rebellions.
Japan
  • Military leaders (shoguns) ruled Japan in the emperor’s name.
  • Conflict between landholding aristocrats (daimyo) left Japan in disarray.
  • Samurai were salaried, giving them economic power.
  • Oda Nobunaga unified about one-third of Japan.
  • Toyotomi Hideyoshi continued expanding the territory.
  • Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Tokugawa shogunate, centralizing control over a feudal system.
  • Daimyo maintained residences in their territory and in the capital, with family members in Tokyo as hostages.
Consolidating Mughal Power in South Asia
  • Akbar (ruled 1556-1605) established an efficient government and administered laws fairly.
  • Paid government officials (zamindars) were in charge of specific duties.
  • Later, zamindars were given grants of land rather than salaries.

Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art

  • European governments sought to legitimize authority through divine right.
  • They built impressive structures, such as the Palace of Versailles in France.
Peter and St. Petersburg
  • Peter seized lands on the Baltic Sea, building St. Petersburg as a warm-water port.
  • He moved the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg.
  • The city was designed in a European style.
Askia the Great of Songhai
  • Askia Mohammad I (Askia the Great) promoted Islam throughout his kingdom.
  • Askia made Islam Songhai’s official religion and supported an efficient bureaucracy.
Shah Jahan
  • The Taj Mahal was built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife.
  • Mughal rulers beautified Delhi and had forts built.
Ottoman Architectural and Artistic Achievements
  • Constantinople (Istanbul) remained the western end of the Silk Roads.
  • The Grand Bazaar continued to thrive.
  • Suleiman I ordered the construction of the Suleymaniye Mosque.
French Architecture
  • The Palace at Versailles became a political instrument.
  • Louis XIV entertained nobles there and prevented rebellion.

Financing Empires

  • Raising money to fund imperial expansion and extend state power was key.
Taxation in Russia
  • Peter established state-owned industries and encouraged private industries.
  • He raised taxes and compelled workers to work in shipyards.
  • In 1718, the tax on land was replaced by a tax on individuals.
Ottoman and Mughal Taxation
  • Ottomans levied taxes on peasants and used tax farming to collect it.
  • Private tax collectors grew wealthy and corrupt.
  • Agricultural villages were burdened with taxes and the upkeep of troops.
Tax Collection in the Ming Dynasty
  • Tax collection was the responsibility of wealthy families.
  • Taxes were collected in the form of grains and, later, silver.
Tributes
  • Empires collected tributes from other states.
  • Korea was a tributary state for China.
  • The Mexica had extensive tributary arrangements.
  • The Songhai Empire also had tributary states.

Empires: Belief Systems (1450-1750)

Protestant Reformation

  • The Roman Catholic Church faced challenges in the shift from feudalism to centralized governments.
  • Corruption led to numerous Church councils and reform movements.
  • John Wycliffe and the Lollards argued that priests were unnecessary for salvation.
  • Hussites, followers of Jan Hus, were declared heretics.
Lutheranism
  • Martin Luther objected to the sale of indulgences and simony.
  • In January 1521, Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther.
  • German political leaders sided with Luther.
  • Luther taught that women could have direct access to God.
Calvinism
  • John Calvin broke with the Catholic Church around 1530.
  • The elect ran the community, based on plain living, simple church buildings, and governance by elders.
  • Calvin’s followers in France were called Huguenots.
  • An important socioeconomic impact of Calvinism is the Protestant work ethic.
Anglicanism
  • King Henry VIII set himself up as head of the Church of England.
The Orthodox Church and Reforms in Russia
  • Peter the Great of Russia asserted his authority against the Orthodox Church.
  • He abolished the position of patriarch and incorporated the Church into the government.
  • Peter’s reforms were not welcomed by many peasants and Old Believers.
Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation
  • The Roman Catholic Church embarked on a vigorous Counter-Reformation.
    • Increased use of the Inquisition.
    • Jesuits (Society of Jesus) opposed the spread of Protestantism.
    • The Council of Trent corrected abuses and reaffirmed rituals.
  • Catholicism remained predominant in areas of Western Europe near the Mediterranean Sea.

Wars of Religion

France
  • Catholics and Huguenots fought for nearly half a century.
  • King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, providing religious toleration.
  • In 1685, Louis XIV issued the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.
Thirty Years’ War
  • The final great religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants in Europe.
  • The war culminated in the Peace of Westphalia.
  • It gave countries and duchies more autonomy.
  • Prussia and Austria began to assert themselves.

Islamic Religious Schisms

  • Religion and the state were closely tied in Islamic empires.
Ottoman Empire
  • After the siege of Constantinople, the dominant religion became Islam.
  • Justinian Law was replaced by shariah, a strict Islamic legal system.
The Safavids
  • Using Shi’a Islam as a unifying force, Shah Ismail denied legitimacy to any Sunni.
  • Hostilities within the Ottoman Empire were frequent.
Mughal Toleration and Prosperity
  • Akbar tolerated all religions.
  • Sikhism became the fifth most popular religion in the world.
  • Akbar tried to ease tensions between Hindus and Muslims.
  • He tried to prohibit child marriages and sati.
  • Akbar died without successfully converting to the religion called Din-i Ilahi.

Scientific Revolution

  • In the early 1600s, scientific thinking gained popularity in northern Europe.
  • In 1620, Francis Bacon developed empiricism.
  • Scientific thinking advanced through correspondence and Royal Academies.
  • Sir Isaac Newton published Principia (1687).
  • Intellectuals thought that science showed the world was ordered and rational.

Comparison in Land-Based Empires (1450-1750)

Overview

  • Empires grew as they incorporated conquered lands.
  • Rulers implemented policies to solidify their rule.
  • The conquered did not totally assimilate.
  • Interconnection of hemispheres led to blended cultures.
  • Other factors in decline included weak/corrupt leadership and failure to keep up with military/naval technology.

Military Might

  • Armies were well-trained, organized, equipped, and led.
  • Empires in Eurasia relied on gunpowder weapons.
  • Aztec and Incan warriors were fierce.
Soldiers
  • The Ottoman sultan and Safavid shah used enslaved soldiers to offset tribal loyalties.
  • Janissaries (Ottoman) helped preserve power.
  • Ghulams (Safavid) protected the shah.
  • Aztecs required enslaved people as tribute
Warfare
  • The Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire warred over territorial claims.
  • Religion was an underlying cause of this conflict.
  • The Safavids and Mughals conflicted over resources and trade routes in Afghanistan.
  • Religion was not as important a factor in the conflict between these empires.
  • Morocco sacked the Songhai capital in 1591.

Centralized Bureaucracy

  • Controlling large areas required organized and centralized bureaucracies.
  • China (Ming/Manchu): civil service examination system.
  • Ottoman Empire: devshirme system.
  • Safavid Empire: enlisting bureaucrats from the Persian population.
  • Songhai Empire: bureaucrats from the scholarly class of Timbuktu.
  • Incas: federal system of provinces headed by nobles loyal to the emperor.

Taxation

  • Taxation or revenue collection was necessary in these empires.
  • Examples:
    • Mughal zamindar tax collection.
    • Ottoman tax farming.
    • Aztec tribute lists.
    • Ming collection of “hard currency”.

Striving for Legitimacy

  • Diversity presented challenges.
  • Rulers used religion, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize rule.
  • Akbar attempted a syncretic approach but had little success.
  • Sources of Legitimacy:
    • Religion.
    • Art.
    • Monumental architecture.