Land-Based Empires and Gunpowder Empires

Land-Based Empires (1450-1750)

Overview

• Great land-based empires existed before 1450 and after 1750, but reached their peak between these years.
• Significant empires included the Songhai, Safavids, Mughals, Ottomans, and Manchus (Qing Dynasty).
• These were multiethnic states with direct political control over large regions and overland trade routes.
• After 1750, land-based empires declined due to ethnic identities, ocean trade routes, and economic shifts.

Expansion

• Empires measured power in land, frequently warring with neighbors.
• The Manchus (Qing Dynasty) tripled their land by 1711, starting in 1644.

Centralization

• Empires prospered by consolidating power in central governments.
• They used bureaucratic elites to enforce laws and military professionals for defense.
• Tributes from weaker states and taxes from citizens funded these systems.
• Great palaces, religious buildings, and shrines demonstrated wealth and power.

Belief Systems

• Empires were often tied to particular religious faiths, intertwining political and religious conflicts.
• Examples:
  • Europe: Roman Catholics and Protestants fought wars.
  • Asia: Safavids (Shi’a Muslims) and Mughals (Sunni Muslims) were often at war.

Timeline

• 1453: Ottoman Empire conquers Constantinople.
• 1521: Pope Leo X excommunicates Martin Luther.
• 1547: Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) becomes Tsar of Russia.
• 1556: Akbar begins his rule of the Mughal Empire.
• 1603: James I takes the English throne, advocating the divine right of monarchs.
• 1643: Louis XIV of France takes power.
• 1644: Manchus invade China, establishing the Qing Dynasty.
• 1722: Afghan forces rebel, weakening the Safavid Empire.

Expansion of European, East Asian, and Gunpowder Empires (1450-1750)

Gunpowder Empires

• Term refers to large, multiethnic states in Southwest, Central, and South Asia.
• These empires relied on firearms to conquer and control territories.
• Included Russia, the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires.
• These societies were militaristic but left artistic and architectural legacies.

Europe

• 1450 marked the end of the medieval period and the start of the early modern period.
• New monarchies centralized power by controlling taxes, the army, and religion.
• Examples: Tudors in England, Valois in France, and Isabella and Ferdinand in Spain.
• Bureaucracies increased, and the middle class gained power.

Russia

• Russia was a pivotal position for trade between East and West.
• Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) crowned Tsar in 1547, expanded eastward using gunpowder.
• He took control of the khanates of Kazan, Astrakhan, and Siberia.

Control of the Volga River

• Ivan IV allowed the Stroganovs to hire Cossacks to fight local tribes and the Siberian khan to expand east for the fur trade.
• Control of the Volga River allowed Moscow to trade directly with Persia and the Ottoman Empire.

Expansion to the Pacific

• Russia continued east into Siberia, with fur traders and militias defeating indigenous tribes.
• Missionaries converting natives to Eastern Orthodox faith followed.
• By 1689, Russians reached the Pacific Ocean, with explorations to Alaska (1741) and California (1814).

East Asia

• China's Yuan Dynasty (Mongol) overthrown by the Ming Dynasty in 1368.
• Ming rulers stabilized the region for nearly 300 years.
• In 1644, the Manchu seized power and established the Qing Dynasty (until 1911).

Ming Dynasty

• Expanded China, conquering lands in Mongolia and Central Asia.
• The Great Wall of China was restored and expanded for protection against invaders from the north.

Qing Dynasty

• Emperor Kangxi (ruled 1661-1722) presided over stability and expansion.
  • Sent forces into Taiwan, Mongolia, and Central Asia.
  • Imposed a protectorate over Tibet.
• Emperor Qianlong (ruled 1736-1796) initiated military campaigns west of China.
  • Annexed Xinjiang, which caused mass killings of the local population (Uighurs).
• The Qing Dynasty sold limited trading privileges to European powers, confined to Guangzhou (Canton).
  • Emperor Qianlong rejected increased trade with Britain in 1793.
• The Chinese bureaucracy became corrupt, leading to the White Lotus Rebellion (1796-1804).
  • The Qing government suppressed the uprising brutally.

Rise of the Islamic Gunpowder Empires

• The leaders of the Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires shared traits:
  • Descendants of Turkic nomads from Central Asia.
  • Spoke a Turkic language.
  • Took advantage of Mongol khanate breakup.
  • Relied on gunpowder weapons.
• The initial success was due to military might and weakness of replaced regimes.

The Rule of Tamerlane

• Tamerlane (Timur the Lame) invaded Central Asia and the Middle East, setting the stage for Turkic empires.
• He led an army from Samarkand, conquering Persia and India.
• The ghazi ideal (blending nomadic culture with Islamic holy war) served as a model for warriors.
• Tamerlane’s conquest included the massacre of some 100,000 Hindus before Delhi.
• He encouraged learning and the arts in Samarkand.
• Tamerlane used gunpowder to build a government dependent on his military and artillery.
• His empire lacked an effective political structure, leading to economic ravage.
• His rule highlighted conflict between Mongols and Islamic forces.

The Ottoman Empire

• By the 15th century, it was a major power, extending into modern-day Turkey, the Balkans, North Africa, and Southeast Asia
• Founded by the Osman Dynasty in the 1300s, lasting until 1922.

Mehmed II

• Mehmed II (The Conqueror, ruled 1451-1481) established Istanbul (Constantinople) as the capital in 1453.
• The city controlled the Bosporus Strait, linking the Aegean Sea with the Black Sea.
• The armies seized lands around the Black Sea and moved into the Balkans.
• Mehmed strengthened the Ottoman navy and attacked areas of Italy.

Suleiman I

• The Ottoman Empire reached its peak under Suleiman I (ruled 1520-1566).
• His armies overran Hungary in 1526 and reached the gates of Vienna by 1529.
• In 1522, Suleiman’s navy captured Rhodes.
• The Ottoman navy took control of Tripoli in North Africa in the 1550s.
• The state adapted to new pressures, with reforms in the 18th century.

The Safavids

• The Safavid dynasty originated in the Safavid order of Sufism in the Azerbaijan region (Iran).
• Ismail conquered most of Persia and pushed into Iraq, proclaiming himself Shah in 1501.
• The Safavid Empire lacked a navy and natural defenses but rose to power in the 1500s due to land-based military might and leadership.

Shah Abbas I

• Shah Abbas I (Abbas the Great, ruled 1588-1629) presided over the Safavid Empire at its height.
• His troops included soldiers from Georgia in Russia.
• Abbas imported weaponry from Europe and relied on European military advisors.
• Shi’a Islam served as a unifying force, denying legitimacy to Sunnis.
• Hostilities with the Ottoman Empire (Sunni Islam) were frequent.
• Conflicts arose over control of overland trade routes, with Ottoman trade embargoes against Safavid silk traders.

Role of Women

• Safavid women had access to rights under Islamic law.

Mughal India

• In the 1520s, Babur, a descendant of Tamerlane, founded a 300-year dynasty when India was in disarray.
• He completed conquests in northern India and formed a central government.

Akbar

• Akbar, Babur’s grandson, achieved religious and political goals.
• The Mughal Empire was one of the richest and best-governed states.
• Overseas trade flourished, conducted mostly by Arab traders.
• The caste system divided Hindu people into four categories: Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaishyas, and Shudras.
• Outside of the system were the achhoots, or Dalits (untouchables).

Decline of the Gunpowder Empires

• The Ottoman, Safavid, and Mughal Empires declined as Western Europe grew in strength.
• Russia modernized and reorganized its army, unlike the Islamic empires.

Decline of the Ottoman Empire

• In 1571, a European force defeated the Ottomans at the Battle of Lepanto.
• After Suleiman, weak sultans and strong European neighbors led to its decline.
• The empire became known as the "Sick Man of Europe."
• British and French involvement in Ottoman territories, Greece’s independence (1821), and Russian expansion weakened the empire.

Safavid Decline

• Ineffectual leaders and excessive military spending weakened the economy.
• In 1722, Safavid forces failed to quell a rebellion by oppressed Sunni Pashtuns in Afghanistan.
• Afghan forces sacked Isfahan, ending centralization and tax collection.
• The Safavid Dynasty declined until replaced by the Zand Dynasty in 1760.

Mughal Decline

• Aurangzeb (ruled 1658-1707) inherited an empire weakened by corruption and failure to modernize militarily.
• Aurangzeb drained the treasury and caused peasant uprisings through an austere Islamic lifestyle intolerant of other religions (Sikhs, Hindus).
• Revolts among Hindu and Islamic princes increased instability.
• The British and French gained more economic power, with the British taking political power in the 19th century.

Empires: Administrations (1450-1750)

Centralizing Control in Europe

England

• King James I believed in the divine right of kings.
• The Tudors relied on justices of the peace to maintain peace and carry out laws.
• Parliament (established in 1265) checked the monarch’s powers.
• In 1689, William and Mary signed the English Bill of Rights, assuring civil liberties.

Absolutism in France

• The French government became more absolute in the 17th and 18th centuries.
• Henry IV listened to Jean Bodin, who advocated the divine right of the monarchy.
• Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu centralized government, developing the system of intendants (royal officials).
• Louis XIV (The Sun King) espoused divine right and was a virtual dictator.
• Louis combined lawmaking and the justice system, keeping nobles close at Versailles.
• Refusal to share power eventually weakened the French government.

Reigning in Control of the Russian Empire

• Social hierarchy: noble landowning class (boyars), merchants, and peasants (serfs).

Efforts of Ivan IV

• Ivan IV (Ivan the Terrible) punished boyars who opposed expansion.
• He established a paramilitary force, the oprichnina, loyal to him.

Peter the Great

• The Romanov Dynasty took control in 1613.
• Peter the Great gained control by defeating his half-sister Sophia and the Streltsy.
• Peter reorganized the government, creating provinces and a senate.

Centralizing Control in the Ottoman Empire

• Ottoman sultans used a selection system called devshirme to staff the military and government.
• Christian boys were recruited by force to serve in the Ottoman government.
• The Janissaries were elite forces in the Ottoman army.

Centralizing Control in East and South Asia

China

• The Ming Dynasty wanted to erase the influence of Mongol rulers.
• They brought back the civil service exam, improved education, and reestablished the bureaucracy.
• The Qing government used military control to put down rebellions.

Japan

• Military leaders (shoguns) ruled Japan in the emperor’s name.
• Conflict between landholding aristocrats (daimyo) left Japan in disarray.
• Samurai were salaried, giving them economic power.
• Oda Nobunaga unified about one-third of Japan.
• Toyotomi Hideyoshi continued expanding the territory.
• Tokugawa Ieyasu established the Tokugawa shogunate, centralizing control over a feudal system.
• Daimyo maintained residences in their territory and in the capital, with family members in Tokyo as hostages.

Consolidating Mughal Power in South Asia

• Akbar (ruled 1556-1605) established an efficient government and administered laws fairly.
• Paid government officials (zamindars) were in charge of specific duties.
• Later, zamindars were given grants of land rather than salaries.

Legitimizing Power through Religion and Art

• European governments sought to legitimize authority through divine right.
• They built impressive structures, such as the Palace of Versailles in France.

Peter and St. Petersburg

• Peter seized lands on the Baltic Sea, building St. Petersburg as a warm-water port.
• He moved the capital from Moscow to St. Petersburg.
• The city was designed in a European style.

Askia the Great of Songhai

• Askia Mohammad I (Askia the Great) promoted Islam throughout his kingdom.
• Askia made Islam Songhai’s official religion and supported an efficient bureaucracy.

Shah Jahan

• The Taj Mahal was built by Shah Jahan as a tomb for his wife.
• Mughal rulers beautified Delhi and had forts built.

Ottoman Architectural and Artistic Achievements

• Constantinople (Istanbul) remained the western end of the Silk Roads.
• The Grand Bazaar continued to thrive.
• Suleiman I ordered the construction of the Suleymaniye Mosque.

French Architecture

• The Palace at Versailles became a political instrument.
• Louis XIV entertained nobles there and prevented rebellion.

Financing Empires

• Raising money to fund imperial expansion and extend state power was key.

Taxation in Russia

• Peter established state-owned industries and encouraged private industries.
• He raised taxes and compelled workers to work in shipyards.
• In 1718, the tax on land was replaced by a tax on individuals.

Ottoman and Mughal Taxation

• Ottomans levied taxes on peasants and used tax farming to collect it.
• Private tax collectors grew wealthy and corrupt.
• Agricultural villages were burdened with taxes and the upkeep of troops.

Tax Collection in the Ming Dynasty

• Tax collection was the responsibility of wealthy families.
• Taxes were collected in the form of grains and, later, silver.

Tributes

• Empires collected tributes from other states.
• Korea was a tributary state for China.
• The Mexica had extensive tributary arrangements.
• The Songhai Empire also had tributary states.

Empires: Belief Systems (1450-1750)

Protestant Reformation

• The Roman Catholic Church faced challenges in the shift from feudalism to centralized governments.
• Corruption led to numerous Church councils and reform movements.
• John Wycliffe and the Lollards argued that priests were unnecessary for salvation.
• Hussites, followers of Jan Hus, were declared heretics.

Lutheranism

• Martin Luther objected to the sale of indulgences and simony.
• In January 1521, Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther.
• German political leaders sided with Luther.
• Luther taught that women could have direct access to God.

Calvinism

• John Calvin broke with the Catholic Church around 1530.
• The elect ran the community, based on plain living, simple church buildings, and governance by elders.
• Calvin’s followers in France were called Huguenots.
• An important socioeconomic impact of Calvinism is the Protestant work ethic.

Anglicanism

• King Henry VIII set himself up as head of the Church of England.

The Orthodox Church and Reforms in Russia

• Peter the Great of Russia asserted his authority against the Orthodox Church.
• He abolished the position of patriarch and incorporated the Church into the government.
• Peter’s reforms were not welcomed by many peasants and Old Believers.

Counter-Reformation or Catholic Reformation

• The Roman Catholic Church embarked on a vigorous Counter-Reformation.
  • Increased use of the Inquisition.
  • Jesuits (Society of Jesus) opposed the spread of Protestantism.
  • The Council of Trent corrected abuses and reaffirmed rituals.
• Catholicism remained predominant in areas of Western Europe near the Mediterranean Sea.

Wars of Religion

France

• Catholics and Huguenots fought for nearly half a century.
• King Henry IV issued the Edict of Nantes, providing religious toleration.
• In 1685, Louis XIV issued the Revocation of the Edict of Nantes.

Thirty Years’ War

• The final great religious conflict between Catholics and Protestants in Europe.
• The war culminated in the Peace of Westphalia.
• It gave countries and duchies more autonomy.
• Prussia and Austria began to assert themselves.

Islamic Religious Schisms

• Religion and the state were closely tied in Islamic empires.

Ottoman Empire

• After the siege of Constantinople, the dominant religion became Islam.
• Justinian Law was replaced by shariah, a strict Islamic legal system.

The Safavids

• Using Shi’a Islam as a unifying force, Shah Ismail denied legitimacy to any Sunni.
• Hostilities within the Ottoman Empire were frequent.

Mughal Toleration and Prosperity

• Akbar tolerated all religions.
• Sikhism became the fifth most popular religion in the world.
• Akbar tried to ease tensions between Hindus and Muslims.
• He tried to prohibit child marriages and sati.
• Akbar died without successfully converting to the religion called Din-i Ilahi.

Scientific Revolution

• In the early 1600s, scientific thinking gained popularity in northern Europe.
• In 1620, Francis Bacon developed empiricism.
• Scientific thinking advanced through correspondence and Royal Academies.
• Sir Isaac Newton published Principia (1687).
• Intellectuals thought that science showed the world was ordered and rational.

Comparison in Land-Based Empires (1450-1750)

Overview

• Empires grew as they incorporated conquered lands.
• Rulers implemented policies to solidify their rule.
• The conquered did not totally assimilate.
• Interconnection of hemispheres led to blended cultures.
• Other factors in decline included weak/corrupt leadership and failure to keep up with military/naval technology.

Military Might

• Armies were well-trained, organized, equipped, and led.
• Empires in Eurasia relied on gunpowder weapons.
• Aztec and Incan warriors were fierce.

Soldiers

• The Ottoman sultan and Safavid shah used enslaved soldiers to offset tribal loyalties.
• Janissaries (Ottoman) helped preserve power.
• Ghulams (Safavid) protected the shah.
• Aztecs required enslaved people as tribute

Warfare

• The Ottoman Empire and Safavid Empire warred over territorial claims.
• Religion was an underlying cause of this conflict.
• The Safavids and Mughals conflicted over resources and trade routes in Afghanistan.
• Religion was not as important a factor in the conflict between these empires.
• Morocco sacked the Songhai capital in 1591.

Centralized Bureaucracy

• Controlling large areas required organized and centralized bureaucracies.
• China (Ming/Manchu): civil service examination system.
• Ottoman Empire: devshirme system.
• Safavid Empire: enlisting bureaucrats from the Persian population.
• Songhai Empire: bureaucrats from the scholarly class of Timbuktu.
• Incas: federal system of provinces headed by nobles loyal to the emperor.

Taxation

• Taxation or revenue collection was necessary in these empires.
• Examples:
  • Mughal zamindar tax collection.
  • Ottoman tax farming.
  • Aztec tribute lists.
  • Ming collection of “hard currency”.

Striving for Legitimacy

• Diversity presented challenges.
• Rulers used religion, art, and monumental architecture to legitimize rule.
• Akbar attempted a syncretic approach but had little success.
• Sources of Legitimacy:
  • Religion.
  • Art.
  • Monumental architecture.