Challenging Oppression and Confronting Privilege – Theoretical and Conceptual Considerations (Chapter 1)

The Imperative of Theory

• Critical social theory views human liberation as the highest form of intellectual activity (Ben Agger).
• Many helping-professions practitioners view theory as esoteric and practice as practical, real-world work; theory is seen as unnecessary or obstructive.
• David Howe (1987) argues against this by:
  • (1) theory is part of everyday life and related to everyday reasoning; and
  • (2) theoretical ignorance is not a virtue and can enable sloppy practice.
• Everyday use of theory examples include predicting rain from dark clouds; similarly, social workers use theory in practice without always naming it.
• Howe contends practice cannot be separated from theory; perceptions of people and situations are always theory-laden.

Personal Constructed Theory

• Many workers rely on their own experiences and common sense rather than systematic theory; this becomes a personal theory rather than a formal theory.
• Lesley’s placement in a child protection agency: Dan asserts she should forget school theory and rely on common sense; Lesley challenges whether his common sense would be the same for people who are not male, white, middle-class, and English-speaking.
• This illustrates that what counts as “common sense” is itself theory-laden and culturally situated.
• Theory carries out four basic functions: description, explanation, prediction, and control/management of events or changes. Social work pursues these functions at multiple levels (individual, family, community, policy).
• Theories are not laws; human social life is too complex for universal laws; there are good theories but no universal social laws.

The Imperative of Theory (continued)

• There is no dominant single theory of oppression or anti-oppressive practice; current discourse shows multiple approaches (still evolving).
• Three broad approaches to oppression in social work:
  • (1) helping oppressed persons cope with oppression;
  • (2) modifying/reforming the system so oppressed people can fit better;
  • (3) contributing to a total transformation of society.
• These approaches are not mutually exclusive, though in practice many social workers focus on (1) and (2); fewer aim for (3).
• The book argues for more theoretical and analytical rigor in anti-oppressive practice while avoiding theoretical fashions.

Social Problems: The Great Paradox of the Helping Professions

• The social services aim to treat, ameliorate, or eliminate causes and consequences of social problems (poverty, crime, homelessness, abuse, etc.).
• Despite an extensive literature on social problems, there is no single agreed definition or explanation of what a social problem is or why it occurs.
• Rubington and Weinberg (1995) present seven competing sociological perspectives on social problems; common elements across definitions include:
  • (i) a condition that is societal in nature
  • (ii) affects a significant number of people
  • (iii) is undesirable
  • (iv) something can be done to rectify it
• There are many questions about reality, magnitude, who defines undesirability, and who decides remedies; social problems are, in part, social constructs based on subjective, objective, and ideological factors (Berger & Luckmann 1966).
• Rubington & Weinberg’s seven current perspectives:
  1) Social pathology view (medical model): problems due to character flaws in individuals; goal is to change the person.
  2) Social disorganization perspective: problems arise from rapid social changes; remedy is humanitarian care and minor reforms to restore equilibrium; ties to general systems theory and ecological models.
  3) Value conflict perspective: problems stem from competing interests and unequal access to resources; ensure no group is deprived and apply the same rules to all; emphasis on rule neutrality.
  4) Deviant behaviour perspective: problems reflect deviance as adaptation to structural barriers; broaden opportunities for disadvantaged groups (open opportunity structures).
  5) Labelling perspective: focus shifts to who has power to define conduct as deviant; social problems emerge from powerful labeling practices.
  6) Critical theory: problems arise from social structures that privilege some groups and oppress others along race, class, gender, etc.; solution is structural transformation toward equality.
  7) Constructionist perspective: extends labeling; emphasizes processes through which social problems are constructed and argued; focus on claims-making and power dynamics in defining problems.
• Postmodern considerations: Foucault’s criminology analysis links to labeling and constructionism; postmodernists critique grand theories and highlight subjective experiences and power/knowledge discourses.
• The author’s stance: adopt a plural approach (aspects of conflict and constructionist perspectives, informed by postmodern insights) rather than a single theory; a synthesis that remains coherent and compatible with anti-oppressive aims.
• Definition of social problems (as per Fleras): conditions that are socially constructed and contested, reflect objective reality, vary over time and place, have life-cycles, are bound to broader contexts, and respond differently to treatment.
• The author cites that social work literature often lacks explicit theory about social problems, leading to victim-blaming definitions; calls for more theoretical clarity.

The Seven Perspectives in Context

• 1) Social pathology (medical model): individual defects; treat the person; historical prominence but persists in forms today (e.g., diagnoses, pathologies).
• 2) Social disorganization: problems originate in social disorganization due to rapid change; remedy is to fine-tune the system, not overhaul it.
• 3) Value conflict: pluralistic society; conflicts over resources and values; aim for equal opportunities and rules that don’t privilege the dominant group.
• 4) Deviant behaviour: deviance is an adaptive response to structural barriers; remove barriers to open opportunity structures.
• 5) Labelling: power to define what is deviant; focus on the social construction of deviance by those in power.
• 6) Critical theory: social problems rooted in oppressive social structures; transformation toward equality is the goal.
• 7) Constructionist: emphasizes discourse and claims-making; how social problems are constructed and who benefits from the construction.

What Perspective Does Mullaly Adopt?

• Mullaly argues for a synthesis rather than allegiance to one perspective alone.
• He combines aspects of conflict (critical theory) and social constructionist/postmodern insights, while acknowledging the value of some order perspectives for certain analytic tasks.
• He emphasizes that social problems are socially constructed and contested but also grounded in objective realities and structural contexts.
• He describes social problems as dynamic, time- and place-bound, and influenced by broader social forces and power relations.

Parking Lots Analogy (Workfare Discussion)

• Mullaly uses a parking-lot analogy to critique workfare policies:
  • If a lot holds 100 cars but 120 cars need parking, shifting cars around cannot solve the fundamental problem; you need more spaces (a bigger lot).
  • Similarly, if there are more unemployed people than jobs, blaming individuals or demanding more training does not fix underlying labor-market shortages.

Order vs. Conflict/Change Perspectives

• Two broad lenses for analyzing society and social problems:
  • Order perspective (conservative/functional): society is an organism; institutions regulate interactions to maintain order; problems arise from individual deviations; emphasis on maintaining the status quo; descriptive theories include psychodynamic, systems, ecological, and certain aspects of general systems theory.
  • Conflict/change perspective (radical/transformative): society is a site of ongoing group struggles; power relations and structural inequality drive problems; solutions require systemic transformation; associated theories include critical theory, feminist, anti-racist, structural, postcolonial, and anti-oppressive approaches.
• These are not absolute dichotomies; many people hold beliefs from both sides and integrate theories (e.g., psychodynamics with systems theory).

Table 1.1: Assumptions of Order and Conflict Perspectives (Summary)

• Order Perspective:

  • Nature of human beings: competitive, contentious, individualistic, acquisitive
  • Nature of social institutions: enduring, regulate, coordinate interactions
  • Nature of society: interdependent institutions; organism-like
  • Continuity of social institutions: maintained by consensus
  • Relationship between people and society: conformity to consensus-based arrangements
  • Nature of social problems: socialization can fail; corrective mechanisms exist (rehabilitation, social control)
  • Approach to social problems: behavioral change, limited social reform; emphasis on adjusting within the existing system
  • Social work theories/approaches: psychodynamic, systems/ecological, behavioral, problem-solving, strengths perspective, etc.

• Conflict/Change Perspective:

  • Nature of human beings: cooperative, collective, oriented around common interests
  • Nature of social institutions: serve private/public interests, inequality is inherent
  • Nature of society: characterized by dominant-subordinate relations and coercive structures
  • Continuity of social institutions: questioned; power and coercion uphold the status quo
  • Relationship between people and society: challenge coercive, hierarchical arrangements
  • Nature of social problems: caused by discriminatory institutions and rules; rooted in inequality
  • Approach to social problems: fundamental social change; transformation; critique of the status quo
  • Social work theories/approaches: feminist, Marxist, structural, anti-racist, anti-oppressive, critical postmodern, post-colonial, indigenous decolonization, narrative/just therapy

The Individual, Family, and Subcultural Explanations

• Individual level (Social pathology): source lies within the person; poverty, mental illness, addiction, crime blamed on personal traits; “biographical portrait” separating person from society; historical examples: Lombroso, Freud; sociobiology controversy (Rushton 1988).
• Family level (Order-focused systems): social problems attributed to family dysfunction (poor parenting, communication issues); shift from “individual pathology” to “dysfunctional family” explanations; family therapy prominent; this analysis sometimes ignores larger structural factors.
• Subcultural level (Cultural explanations): focus on groups defined by race, ethnicity, sexuality, class with distinct values; problems attributed to inferior cultures (culture of poverty; cultural deprivation theory for Indigenous peoples); risk of blaming the victim; Ryan’s four-step process of victim-blaming.
• These levels often reflect the order perspective; include environmental influences like family and subculture but stop short of structural transformation.

Social Work and the Order Perspective

• Most current social work theories (psychoanalytic, family therapy, general systems theory, ecological approach) originate in the order perspective and emphasize personal reform, limited reform, or advocacy aimed at humanizing capitalism rather than transforming it.
• General systems theory and ecological approaches provide descriptive snapshots but lack explanatory power for root causes; they emphasize existing relationships and environments but ignore larger structural forces and power dynamics.
• Progressive social workers may use these theories as analytical tools for understanding a situation, but they are insufficient alone for addressing broader structural inequalities.

Modernism and Postmodernism

• Modernism (Enlightenment-based rationalism): truth and knowledge are objective and discoverable through rational inquiry; universal laws and mastery of nature; knowledge can be used to control and improve the human condition.
• Postmodernism: critiques the notion of objective truth; argues that truths are culturally, historically, and socially constructed; emphasizes plurality of realities and the role of discourse in shaping knowledge and power.
• The book aligns with a critical postmodernist approach, blending insights from modernist and postmodern traditions to revitalize critical social theory.
• The connection to social work: postmodern critiques of grand narratives open space for recognizing diverse experiences and perspectives, including marginalized voices.

Major Concepts in Oppression/Anti-Oppression Framework

• Structures of Oppression: social institutions (economic, legal, welfare, education, religious) are organized as social structures that affect everyone and are historically dominated by privileged groups; these structures embed racism, sexism, classism, etc.
• Dominant vs. invisible structures: visible institutions exist alongside invisible structures like dominant ideology, which rationalizes oppression and legitimizes power.
• Domination and internalization: many people internalize oppression; the dominant group may not recognize alternative structures; Freirean ideas about limited perceived alternatives.
• Structural determinism vs autonomous subject: tension between structural constraints and human agency; postmodern perspectives emphasize micro-level agency while still acknowledging macro-structures.
• The concept of agency: power can be both possessive and relational; power is distributed, but not equally; some people possess more power due to position and social location.
• Discourse and language: language reflects reality, but postmodernism argues language constructs reality; dominant discourses shape what counts as knowledge and what is considered legitimate; counter-discourses can challenge oppression.
• Ideology: a structured set of beliefs that justify social arrangements; dominance creates a dominant ideology that naturalizes inequality; subordinate ideologies may resist.
• Dominant ideology and hegemony: capitalism and related power structures are sustained by an overarching ideology; Gramsci’s concept of hegemony explains how the dominant group maintains consent through cultural leadership.
• The politics of difference vs solidarity: traditional solidarity among oppressed groups can neglect differences within those groups; fracture identities acknowledge multiple, intersecting oppressions; a politics of difference seeks to respect and address diverse experiences while maintaining solidarity.

Power and Resistance

• Traditional critical theory saw power concentrated in large structures (state, corporations, church) and emphasized collective action for change.
• Postmodern perspective sees power as dispersed and local, embedded in everyday relations, institutions, and discourses (Foucault).
• Power is always contested and resistance is an act of countervailing power; resistance can occur at micro and macro levels.
• A balanced anti-oppressive practice requires recognizing both structural power and everyday agency; it also requires collective mobilization when appropriate.

Discourse, Language, and Ideology

• Language as more than reflection; discourse is a framework of thought that shapes how we think, discuss, and act; dominant discourses privilege certain interests and marginalize others.
• Ideology provides the world view through which social reality is interpreted; many ideologies coexist, with one dominant ideology often shaping policy and practice.
• Counter-discourses—alternative ways of thinking—are used to challenge oppressive ideologies and promote equality and social justice.
• Deconstruction of dominant discourses helps to reveal discriminatory assumptions and enables the development of counter-discourses that support emancipation.

A Politics of Difference and a Politics of Solidarity

• Solidarity across oppressed groups has historically been central to social movements, but traditional solidarity often relied on essentialized identities (e.g., 'the working class'); this overlooked differences within groups.
• Fractured identities: individuals hold multiple, intersecting identities (race, gender, class, sexuality, ability); no single identity fully captures a person’s experience.
• A progressive politics of difference combines solidarity with recognition of differences; interdependence and difference can co-exist without subsuming one identity under another.
• The text advocates a dialectical tension between interdependence (solidarity) and difference to guide future social work practice and movements.

Critical Social Theory: Framework and Practice

• Critical social theory is macro in scope and links social theory to political practice aimed at emancipation and liberation.
• Three undertakings of critical social theory (Stephen Leonard, 1990):
  • (1) Locate sources of domination in actual social practices;
  • (2) Present an alternative vision of a life free from domination;
  • (3) Translate these tasks into intelligible terms for the oppressed.
• Core features of a critical theory (Agger, 1998):
  • Opposes positivism; knowledge is a construct shaped by social and political values.
  • Seeks to raise consciousness about domination and oppression and demonstrates the possibility of a future free of oppression.
  • Argues oppression is structural and spans politics, economy, culture, discourse, gender, race, etc.
  • Structures of oppression reproduce through internalization of dominant-subordinate relationships; emphasizes agency to transform society.
  • Rejects economic determinism; advocates a dialectic between structure and agency; recognizes that social change begins in everyday life.
  • Encourages responsibility for one’s own liberation and cautions against revolutionary expediency that oppresses others.
• Additional postmodern insight (Tim Dant): modern restrictions on daily life are culturally embedded and may be undone through collective recognition and cultural critique.
• A critical theory framework is not monolithic; it includes feminism, critical race theory, post-colonial theory, indigenous/decolonization approaches, narrative therapy, and anti-oppressive practices.

What Counts as Critical Social Work Theory? (Table 1.2 overview)

• Conventional (order-based) perspectives include:
  • Psychodynamic, behavioural, client-centred, psych-social, clinical approaches, family therapies, casework, person-in-environment, life-model, problem-solving, strengths perspective, and general systems/ecological approaches.
• Progressive (conflict/change-based) perspectives include:
  • Feminist social work, Marxist/radical, structural, anti-racist, anti-oppressive, critical postmodern, post-colonial, indigenous decolonization, narrative therapy, just therapy.
• Note: Any of the conventional theories can be used within a critical framework, though traditionally this has been rare.
• The author argues that general systems theory and ecological approaches are not true theories (lacking explanatory/predictive power) and should not be treated as core social-work knowledge; they are descriptive tools.
• The text emphasizes a distinction between micro (practice-level) theories and macro (system-level) theories, with the macro theories offering a broader critique of social structures.

Modernism vs Postmodernism in Social Work Theory

• Modernism: truth is objective and accessible via rational thought; universal laws can be discovered; knowledge can be used to control and improve conditions.
• Postmodernism: rejects fixed realities; emphasizes multiple truths and the contextual nature of knowledge; challenges grand narratives and universal claims; highlights power/knowledge dynamics in discourses.
• The book situates itself within a critical postmodernist approach, arguing that postmodern insights rejuvenate critical theory by addressing fragmentation, power, and voice from marginalized groups.
• The relationship between postmodernism and critical social theory is not a simple break; both share roots and critique Enlightenment rationalism.

Key Concepts: Structures, Power, and Resistance

• Structures of oppression vs. individual agency: both macro- and micro-level analyses are essential; power is not exclusively in large institutions, but can be exercised in everyday settings (e.g., schools, prisons, offices).
• Dominant ideology and internalized oppression: dominant groups’ beliefs become naturalized; individuals internalize these beliefs and may defend oppressive systems.
• Hegemony: dominance is maintained through cultural leadership and consent, not only coercion.
• Power and resistance (Foucault): power is everywhere, resistance is always possible; anti-oppressive work should cultivate countervailing power and collective action when needed.
• Discourse and language: discourse organizes thought and action; changing discourse can alter social reality and hinder oppressive practices.
• Ideology: a framework of social, economic, and political assumptions; dominance frames reality; multiple ideologies coexist with a dominant one.
• A politics of difference: recognizing fracture identities within oppressed groups; avoid essentializing identities while maintaining solidarity.

Practical Implications for Anti-Oppressive Practice

• Anti-oppressive practice requires understanding both structural forces and personal experiences.
• It involves analyzing how oppression operates at multiple levels (individual, group, institutional) and mobilizing both micro-interventions and macro-structural changes.
• It emphasizes using counter-discourses and inclusive coalitions to address intersecting oppressions (gender, race, class, sexuality, ability).
• It recognizes the need for both solidarity and acknowledgment of difference to avoid reproducing dominance within movements.

Conclusion of Chapter 1

• Clear theoretical frameworks are essential for informed, well-articulated social-work practice.
• The book adopts a critical social theory framework, informed by postmodern, post-structural, feminist, and post-colonial insights.
• Oppression is systemic and practices of social work should aim for emancipation rather than simply amelioration of symptoms.
• The approach is not universalist or dogmatic; it is a dynamic, critical, and evolving framework designed to address contemporary social realities.

Critical Questions for Discussion (from Chapter 1)

• How would you respond to a politician/editor who argues social work positions should be filled by people with no formal education and only common sense?
• How would you respond to peers who claim real learning occurs only in field placements, not in classroom theory?
• How would you explain the existence of social problems (poverty, unemployment, domestic violence, mental illness, racism, drug abuse, child abuse) from each of the seven theoretical perspectives?
• How can you combine conventional (order-based) and progressive (conflict/change-based) theories in practice?
• What is an invisible structure of oppression and how does it operate?
• Can you think of subtle acts of resistance to classroom material or instructors that minimize retaliation?

Suggested Further Readings (as listed in the chapter)

• Agger, Ben (2006). Critical Social Theories: An Introduction, 2nd ed. Westview Press.
• Lundy, Colleen (2004). Social Work and Social Justice: A Structural Approach. Broadview Press.
• Mullaly, Bob (2007). The New Structural Social Work. Oxford University Press.
• Payne, Malcolm (2005). Modern Social Work Theory, 3rd ed. Lyceum Books.
• Rubington, Earl, and S. Martin Weinberg (eds.) (2002). The Study of Social Problems, 6th ed. Oxford University Press.

Key Takeaways

• Theory is integral to practice, not separable from it.
• Social problems are both real and socially constructed, varying across time and context.
• An anti-oppressive social work framework combines understanding of power/structures with attention to individual experiences and agency.
• A balanced view acknowledges both structural forces and personal responsibility; it rejects both blanket determinism and pure voluntarism.
• Solidarity while recognizing difference helps address diverse oppressions without erasing identities or experiences.