AP PSYCH MIDTERM

Psychological Perspectives

1. Humanism

   • Focuses on personal growth, self-actualization, and free will.

   • Key theorists: Abraham Maslow (Hierarchy of Needs), Carl Rogers (Self-Concept).

   • Emphasizes the importance of love, acceptance, and personal potential.

   • Example: A person striving to become the best version of themselves through therapy.

2. Psychodynamic

   • Emphasizes unconscious drives, conflicts, and early childhood experiences.

   • Key theorist: Sigmund Freud (Psychoanalytic Theory).

   • Explores how unresolved conflicts from childhood shape behavior and personality.

   • Example: Repressed memories from childhood influencing adult behavior.

3. Behavioral

   • Focuses on observable behavior, learned through reinforcement or punishment.

   • Key theorists: B.F. Skinner (Operant Conditioning), John Watson (Classical Conditioning).

   • Emphasizes behavior modification through reinforcement.

   • Example: A child being rewarded with candy for good behavior, reinforcing the behavior.

4. Socio-Cultural

   • Studies how culture, environment, and social interactions influence behavior.

   • Example: How different cultures view family roles or gender expectations.

5. Cognitive

   • Examines how we think, process, store, and retrieve information.

   • Key theorists: Jean Piaget (Cognitive Development), Lev Vygotsky (Social Development).

   • Example: Memory processes, problem-solving, and decision-making.

6. Biological

   • Examines brain structures, genetics, and chemicals to explain behavior.

   • Focus on how genetics, neurotransmitters, and the brain impact behavior.

   • Example: Genetic predispositions to mental illnesses like schizophrenia.

7. Evolutionary

   • Considers how natural selection shapes behaviors that aid survival.

   • Example: Fear of snakes is an evolutionary adaptation for survival.

Research Methods

1. Case Study

   • In-depth study of an individual or small group to reveal universal principles.

   • Example: Phineas Gage’s injury and how it affected his behavior.

2. Experiment

   • Manipulating variables to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

   • Includes control and experimental groups.

   • Example: Studying the effect of sleep on memory by controlling sleep duration.

3. Longitudinal Study

   • Follows the same subjects over a long period to track changes.

   • Example: Tracking cognitive development in children over several years.

4. Cross-Sectional Study

   • Compares different groups at one point in time.

   • Example: Comparing different age groups' reaction times.

5. Observation

   • Watching and recording behavior without interfering.

   • Example: Observing children playing in a park to study social behaviors.

Correlation

1. Positive Correlation

   • Two variables increase or decrease together.

   • Example: The more you exercise, the better your physical health.

2. Negative Correlation

   • One variable increases as the other decreases.

   • Example: As stress levels increase, sleep quality tends to decrease.

Parts of the Brain

1. Amygdala

   • Controls emotions like fear and aggression.

   • Example: Activates when faced with a threatening situation.

2. Hippocampus

   • Processes and stores new memories.

   • Example: Damage to the hippocampus results in memory loss.

3. Medulla

   • Regulates breathing, heart rate, and vital functions.

   • Example: Involved in controlling automatic functions like heartbeat.

4. Hypothalamus

   • Maintains homeostasis; regulates hunger, thirst, and temperature.

   • Example: Tells the body to sweat when overheated.

5. Cerebral Cortex

   • Outer brain layer responsible for higher-level thinking and processing.

   • Example: Decision-making, language, and problem-solving.

6. Cerebellum

   • Coordinates balance, posture, and fine motor movements.

   • Example: Helps you maintain balance while riding a bike.

7. Pons

   • Assists in sleep and communication between brain regions.

   • Example: Regulates REM sleep.

8. Thalamus

   • Relays sensory information to other brain areas.

   • Example: Processes sensory inputs like touch, sight, and sound.

9. Frontal Lobe

   • Controls decision-making, problem-solving, and movement.

   • Example: Involved in planning and reasoning tasks.

10. Broca’s Area

• Allows speech production.

• Damage can result in Broca’s aphasia (difficulty speaking).

Nervous System

1. Sympathetic Nervous System

   • Activates “fight or flight” response.

   • Example: Increased heart rate and blood flow during stress.

2. Parasympathetic Nervous System

   • Restores calm; “rest and digest” state.

   • Example: Slows heart rate and promotes digestion after eating.

Drugs

1. Stimulants

   • Increase brain activity (e.g., caffeine, amphetamines).

   • Example: Cocaine increases dopamine, resulting in heightened alertness.

2. Depressants

   • Slow down brain and body functions (e.g., alcohol, tranquilizers).

   • Example: Alcohol inhibits neurotransmission and can impair motor skills.

Sleep Cycle

1. Sleep Cycle

   • Alternates between NREM (non-dreaming) and REM (dreaming) stages.

   • Lasts approximately 90 minutes and repeats throughout the night.

Hormones/Endocrine System

1. Hormones

   • Chemical messengers released by glands that regulate body processes.

   • Example: Insulin regulates blood sugar levels.

2. Endocrine System

   • A network of glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate processes like growth, metabolism, and reproduction.

   • Example: The thyroid gland regulates metabolism.

3. Pituitary Gland

   • The “Master Gland” that controls growth and other endocrine glands.

   • Example: Produces growth hormone (GH).

Neurotransmitters

1. Dopamine

   • Influences movement, pleasure, and learning.

   • Example: Low dopamine levels are associated with Parkinson's disease.

2. Serotonin

   • Affects mood, sleep, and appetite.

   • Example: Low serotonin levels can contribute to depression.

3. Acetylcholine

   • Enables muscle action and memory.

   • Example: Involved in memory processes and muscle contractions.

4. Endorphins

   • Reduce pain and produce pleasure (natural painkillers).

   • Example: Released during exercise, leading to the "runner's high."

Nature vs. Nurture

1. Nature

   • Traits and behaviors are influenced by genetics and biology.

   • Example: Inherited traits like eye color and predisposition to certain diseases.

2. Nurture

   • Environment and experience shape behavior and traits.

   • Example: Parenting style and childhood experiences affecting personality development.

Sensation

1. Semicircular Canals

   • Structures in the ear responsible for balance.

2. Photoreceptor Cells

   • Cells in the retina (rods/cones) that detect light.

3. Gustation

   • Sense of taste.

4. Vestibular Sense

   • Sense of balance and spatial orientation.

5. Kinesthetic Sense

   • Awareness of body movement and positioning.

6. Audition

   • Sense of hearing.

Perception

1. Monocular Cues

   • Depth cues visible with one eye.

   • Example: Linear Perspective and Relative Size.

Memory

1. Encoding

   • Processing information into a usable form for memory.

   • Example: Visual encoding (remembering a face).

2. Storage

   • Maintaining information over time.

   • Example: Long-term memory stores information for future use.

3. Retrieval

   • Accessing stored memories.

   • Example: Recalling a friend’s phone number.

Thinking

1. Functional Fixedness

   • Inability to see a new use for an object.

   • Example: Not thinking to use a coin to open a bottle.

2. Divergent Thinking

   • Generating creative solutions or multiple answers.

   • Example: Brainstorming many solutions to a problem.

3. Growth Mindset

   • Belief that abilities can develop through effort.

   • Example: Viewing challenges as opportunities to learn.

4. Fixed Mindset

   • Belief that abilities are unchangeable.

   • Example: Believing you're "just not good" at math.

5. Mental/Perceptual Set

   • Tendency to approach problems the same way.

   • Example: Solving a puzzle with the same method every time, even if it's ineffective.

6. Heuristics

   • Simple thinking strategies for efficient decision-making.