Untitled Flashcards Set

Urban

High constraint

Low constraint

High prestige

• Gated community

• Upper-class districts

Low Prestige

• Ghettos

• jails

• Ethnic clusters

Rural

High constraint

Low constraint

High prestige

Low Prestige

• Reservations

• Refugee camps

Definition: the differential allocation/distribution of persons, of people, in space based on real and putative group membership in a category.

• Differential allocation = Differential distributions of people in space based on real and putative group membership in a category

• Ethno Racial Segregation = differential distribution of people in physical or social space based on real and putative ethnoracial membership

  • Social Space has 3 major manifestations:

    • 1. Occupational structure - distribution of people by job

    • 2. Schools - some schools might have more blues than greens (high segregation), or same amounts (low segregation)

    • 3. Networks/Intermarraige)

  • Physical Space has 3 major dimensions of segregation in physical space:

    • 1. Residential - distribution of neighborhood

    • 2. Workplaces

    • 3. Public Spaces (ex: places of travel, commerce, entertainment)(Ex: Jim Crow south - complete separation in physical space

  • Main indicator to identify severity of segregation = Dissimilarity index (scale 1-100)

• Micro segregation = lowest level

  • A particular neighborhood, or even block/building in a neighborhood

• Meso = Middle level

  • A particular city

• Macro segregation = highest level 

  • All cities

• Segregation transitioned from the Meso level to the micro level in 

• Mistake #1 identify segregation with ethno racial segregation 

  • Ex: Ethno Religious segregation -> strong segregation by religion

• Mistake #2 Failure to indicate where segregation takes place (social/physical)

  • Close relation between ethno racial segregation and class segregation

  • Hard to say which drives the other 

  • Segregation can occur in various dimensions like occupational structures, schools, residential areas, and public spaces, each affecting social dynamics 

• Mistake #3: is failing to recognize how different forms of segregation (ethno-racial, class, religious) are often deeply intertwined and may influence each other. Understanding segregation requires recognizing these interconnections and how they collectively shape the social and physical landscape of cities and societies.

  • Segregation in US -> Chicago School in 1920’s, Robert Park and Ernest Burgess

    • Founding school of sociology 

    • Attached it to ecology - study of plants/animals; population movement

      • Became human ecology -> a natural biotic 

  • Portrayed residential segregation as inevitable, mostly benign, and a product of urban modernity 

  • This school naturalized segregation 

  • But emergence of Civil Rights Movement questioned this

    • Segregation due to constraint/hostility

• Choice/Affinity ←—----------------------------> Constraint/Hostility

• Strategy of Closure - When the dominant group attempts to close off the subordinate group 

  • Weber came up with the Strategy of Closure

• Marx - the search for capital drives the city

  • The shape of metropolis shaped by needs of capital 

• Political economic approach - yes it is the economy, but there is politics involved

• Feminist theories of the city that looked at gender role of division of labor in cities

  • Dolores Hayden

  • Shape of city determined by requirements of gender division of labor

    • None of these new strands, though, tackled segregation

      • These authors changed idea of segregation of biotic process to process of constraint 

• Segregation in city is driven by struggles over space

• Struggles in social and physical space over distribution of people, activities (garbage dump placement)

  • State structures have major deciding role

  • Utilized zoning laws to prevent lower income/minorities from moving in

    • Indirect discrimination 

• Struggles, Closure Strategies, the Role of the State (state above, household at micro)

• Segregation is a multi-layered phenomenon, multiple sources, mechanisms, dimensions

  • 1st Dimension; Willful segregation based on Choice/Affinity (people in group wanting to be near people like them: “ethnic cluster”) or Constraint/Hostility (

• Opposite of segregation is NOT integration, it IS dispersion

  • Integration suggests that the different parts of the system work together because of mixing

    • However, some cities might work very well because they were segregated

      • Some cities might be integrated because of segregation

• Integration (2 kinds)

  • Structural Integration = Integration from the top down, a rigid pattern of segregation that works well

    • Ex: Apartheid 

  • Social Integration = integration of face to face relations, networks

    • Not apparent in Apartheid

  • Ex: Jim Crow South -> exploitation, subordination, and exclusion worked to stabilize the society, allowing it to move smoothly (society structurally integrated; but denied social integration)

• Ghettos form when constraint and hostility are at their highest 

• Forms of Segregation(4)

  • Douglas Massey

    • 1. Dissimilarity/Unevenness- how dispersed is a group, how even is it distributed

    • 2. Isolation/Exposure- is this group exposed to the presence of other groups, or are they all the same

    • 3. Clustering - degree to which the neighborhoods of the subordinate or dominant category tend to cluster

    • 4. Centrality - the degree to which the neighborhoods are located to the center of the metropolis 

      • Hyper-segregation: only one group for which all forms of segregation apply to -> African Americans 

  • Jean Louis Pankeshon +2

    • 5. African-Americans in large cities-> hyper-segregation

    • 6. Turnover - degree to which members of the group exit over time 

      • Ex: Fictitious city with 16 neighborhoods. 

        • 70% green/30% blues

        • If every neighborhood is 30% green/70% blues, there is 0 dissimilarity

        • If all of the greens live in one neighborhood only, the dissimilarity is 100

Louis Panke Shon (ZUS) 

• Studies neighbors ZUS (sensitive urban zones) to the poorest neighborhoods. Affirmative action based on space 

  • Might show mobility 40% moved and 60% to a better neighborhood 

    • Family size is one factor → short supply of large houses. When they migrate they tend to move to another ZUS. And then there is discrimination in the rental market 

• But state can reduce segregation by providing more housing that is not market housing

Segregation in UK

• Segregation in Europe

• Levels of spatial segregation in Eastern Europe is lower than cities in US; more mixing of ethnically defined populations; very few monoethnic areas 

• The smaller area you use, the more dissimilarity you find, and vice versa

• Blacks in UK follow melting pot model, dispersed; Surinam(former colony of Netherlands) large diaspora of Surinamese in Netherlands, “moral panic” that Surinamese are creating ghettos 

• Notes that for year 2000, dissimilarity in UK was 64 High for African Americans, 51 for LatinX, and 46 for Asians

• Dissimilarity ethnic segregation is higher in US

  • High in UK and Belgium; low in France, Austria

    • This is due to overlap between neighborhoods of poor, middle, and upper class

      • Greater class mixing = greater ethnic mixing

• One indicator of class inequality is the Gini Index- which measures income inequality

  • Finds that the US,UK, Italy has highest income inequality compared to other developed nations (5.6)

  • Finds that France and Austria are in the middle (3.5)

  • Netherlands at bottom

• High taxation and redistribution policy

• Provision of public housing 

  • High/quality/volume of public housing helps spread immigrant population

• So, in order to understand segregation, we need to look at policies of the state

• European countries are more intolerant of neighborhood segregation than US

  • Try to design policies fight class and ethnic segregation

• We conclude: in Europe there is more modest spatial and ethnic segregation

• You have a ghetto when you have a stigmatized group (stigma), that is forced to reside in a particular area (constraint), that  is given to said group (spatial confinement), which create ethnic institutions for that group (parallel institutions)

  • Segregation is necessary for ghettoization

Segregation in South Africa Apartheid

• South Africa initially a settler colony for the Dutch

• Permanently occupied by England in 1806

• As they settled, they encountered two native populations - the Khoisan in the South-West part; and the Bantu-speaking population of the East

• During 18th century, rapid appropriation of best agriculture land

• In 1830’s, 15,000 colonists of Dutch origin (Afrikaners) or the white population,

• Hierarchy

  • Whites (Afrikaners, British, descendants of settlers)

  • Asians (descendants of indentured servants)

  • Bantus/Blacks (indigenous population who were enslaved)

  • Colored (everybody who wasn’t a Bantu, Asian, or white - primarily the mixed population living in Cape Town)

• Bantus divided into three major linguistic groups

• 1870’s, economic boom due to mining industry, which introduced a large-scale migrant system -> new towns (Johannesburg- 1887), 

• Political control rested on whites

  • Control of land by whites, non-white population couldn’t rise above a certain level (the color bar), mobility controlled by whites (blacks had to have pass for travel and homes)

  • Organized large-scale migration from rural areas to mining compounds where black labor was brought

    • Pendulum movement between Bantus to and from mining compounds

      • Old market cyclical/ had ups and downs

    • South Africans wanted to stop urbanization, wanted to have a semi-Proletariat (labor force as commodity, but the workers are not free)

      • During booms, semi-prolitereat moved to mining compounds

      • When labor was not needed, semi-proletariat moved to reservations

        • Reservations as “welfare” for semi-prolitereats

      • Two priorities:

        • Keep cost of production low

        • Maintain monopoly over physical space

• Structure of exclusion: 

  • Excluding from vote, land, occupation, mobility

• Because current modes of segregation weren’t effective enough, Apartheid (“separate development”) was implemented

  • Three components of Apartheid

    • 1. Personal Apartheid - restriction in face to face relationships

    • 2. Urban Apartheid- restrictions of residence into cities, creation of districts that were racially exclusive, each of the four groups assigned to different areas 

      • Symbolic space was projected onto physical space

    • 3. Political Apartheid - The creation of separate puppet states + Confetti territory (Khosa, Zulu)

• Urban apartheid premised on series of laws

  • Population Registration Act of 1950 - compulsory classification; physical appearance and social acceptability as criteria

  • Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act of 1949

  • Immorality Amendment Act of 1950- prevents marital/sexual relations between whites and other groups (protects racial purity of white group)

  • Quartering of the city - dividing the city up group by group

    • Quartering of the city (dividing) [buffer tracts of land]

      • White ← dissimilarity is 100%

      • Asians ← isolation is 100%

      • Colored ← clustering is 100%

      • Bantu ← turnover is 0% 

        • Ngumi 

        • Sotho 

        • Others 

          • Resistance 

            • Internal demonstration repressed

            • Armed Resistance (outside)

            • International pressure (diplomatic bans) 

  • Durban Corporation- developed guidelines for living

    • Divied up sectors, with compound blocks for each group

    • Separated by buffer zones

    • Isolation from one another

    • Separate access to common areas

    • City centers zoned for whites

    • Black areas always smallest

    • Other groups areas were used as buffer zones between whites and blacks

    • Special provisions for black servants

    • Lessen threat of domination by splitting

      • Split Bantus (high population) into three categories

    • Dissimilarity is 100%

    • Isolation is high 100%

    • Clustering is 100%

    • Turnover is 0%

    • Centrality close to 0%

• Apartheid 1948-1994

• There was resistance

  • Internal demonstration repressed

  • Armed forces (outside)

  • International pressure (diplomatic and bans)

    • When these came together in early 1990’s, whites had to give it up

      • Negotiated -> white people can stay and keep their assets

        • Everybody can vote - Mandela elected

• Continuation of colonial society in a post-colonial era

• Personal Apartheid - virtually eliminate all contact between groups except two relations (Master/Servant; Employer/Employee)/racial purity

  • Law to create separate amenities

  • Separate religion (Dutch reformed Church divided into 4 groups)

  • Graves/cemeteries separated

  • Education separated (1954 Native Education Act)(1959 Extensive University Education Act)

    • Splitting of universities

  • Impact on security/public safety

    • Crime concentrated in black neighborhood -> lack of police help, poverty

• Political Apartheid - the creation of separate, fictitious states 

  • State apartheid involved creation of separate puppet states + confetted territory + pseudo government

    • Puppet state = each group assigned to separate territories (=splintering of Bantu)(state within a state - not recognized)

      • Process of state partition became aim of government 

    • Confetted territory = non-continuous small bits of land

      • Endowed with separate administrations, where Bantu rights could be exercised without threatening whites

      • Became cornerstone of Apartheid 

    • Under this policy, Blacks became parts of their own nations (page 66)

    • Extinction of black political presence in 

      • Exercise political rights under whatever Bantu category they are under, no longer deemed black

  • Fragment Bantus, unite whites

    • Limited threat of Bantus

  • 1959 Promotion of Bantus Self-Government Act

    • Political hierarchy

    • Process of Black nation building failed 

    • Tomlinson Commission tried to tidy up this law 

    • Rewarded cooperation of Black authorities

• Lesson learned: creation of puppet states, political apartheid most distinctive 

Comes from the verb sedudere which means to get out.

There is 3 diff forms: 

1. Ghetto (in the city)

2. Reservation (In the countryside).

3. Camp (Liminal Space -> in between the city and countryside).

Ghetto - in the city

• Folk concept of the Ghetto: space of disintegration and destitution (place you want to avoid/flee)

• Sociological concept of the Ghetto: is actually a place of economic betterment, a magnet that attracts people who are ghettoized, a place of structural integration, holds class diversity

  • High structural integration through segregation, but no social integration thru segregation

    • However, the ghetto is a form of social integration

• Ghetto as instrument of bifurcated integration

  • Structural yes

  • Social no 

• Formula for what makes a ghetto:

  • Three elements:

    • 1. Structure (what are the building blocks do we have)

      • 4 elements and 2 functions

        • Elements (4):

          • 1. Stigma : You must have stigma (particularly blood stigma-> stigma transmitted through descent)

          • 2. Constraint : you must force that group to reside in specific area

            • Different from an ethnic cluster because that is by choice

          • 3. Spatial Confinement : forced to live in a reserved area (Category assigned to Territory, Territory assigned to Category -> becomes monethnic area = Mutual Assignation of Category and Territory)

            • Ghetto originates from italian “gettare” where Jews were isolated to island that used to be designated for metal pourers

          • 4. Institutional Parallelism : In ghetto, group that is constrained creates its own ethnic institutions

            • Inside of ghetto: division of labor, many institutions formed for the group to live their lives (ex: institutions of worship, scholarship, commercial and economic, political, cultural production)

              • If you don’t have this, you don’t have a ghetto, merely just a process of ghettoization ‘ghettoization without the ghetto”

        • Functions (2):

          • 1. Economic Extraction - ghetto is socioespacial formation in which one can extract economic value out of stigmatized category that only this group can provide(Ex: Jews) (* not exploitation of labor)

          • 2. Social Ostracization - ostracizing the members of a particular, stigmatized group 

    • 2. Function (what is the function of the ghetto/what does it contribute to the city)

    • 3. Everyday Experience ( Protection, horizontal sociability, dignity, reciprocity)

Two Dimensions of ghetto 

• Vertical (Sword) = hierarchy, closure, control (Inequality)

  • Ghetto is used like sword to subordinate the group 

  • NOT EXCLUSION 

  • Sennett created the idea of the sword and the shield 

  • Cage 

• Horizontal dimension (shield) = solidarity, succon, dignity, reciprocity, protection from violence hy

  • Chicago elected a mock mayor of BronzevilleCan experience dignity because you didn’t have to look up to the dominant group

  • Reciprocity - you treat me with respect, I treat you with respect

  • Cocoon 

  • Jewish Ghettos in Venice

Three facets for the experience of the ghetto

1. Protection 

2. Horizontal sociability 

3. Dignity (He added this after as part of them)

Hyperghetto 

• Moving from ghetto to hyper ghetto 

1. Starting in the 50s, deindustrialization, manufacturing to service economy

2. Demographic shift

3. Civil rights movement

• Four features of the hyperghetto  

  • Double segregation of class and race 

  • Loss of economic function 

  • Loss of institutional buffer that protected residents of the ghetto

  • Social control 

Class divergence - growing black middle class that escapes the historic ghetto, revert to segregation, segregated by class

Ghetto - WALL

Categorization; biologized/racialized ethnicity 

Enclosure; imposed/constraint

Driver; outgroup hostility

Ethnic composition: homogenous

Location: fixed/spatial void

Geographical form: compact, 

Boundary: sharp, clear, impassable

Temporal span; permanent

Function; ostracization

Ethnic Cluster - BRIDGE

Categorization; ordinary ethnicity

Enclosure; elective/choice

Driver; In-group affinity

Ethnic composition heterogenous

location : mobile/occupational site

Geographical form: dispersed

Boundary: diffuse, porous

Temporal span; temporary

Function: assimilation, incorporation

Triple wall; wall of ostracism, wall of violence, paper wall

Ostracism

Violence

Panic peddling 

Block building

Homeowner associations

Restrictive covenant

Red lining

1. Ghettoization and segregation

• Segregation is a necessary condition for ghettoization, but not a sufficient condition for ghettoization, you need parallel institutions

• Every ghetto is segregated, but not every segregated area is a ghetto

2. Ghettoization and poverty

• Demography, ecology, economy

• Ghetto is not inherently a poor area, ghetto is an instrument of collective enrichment, helps the group receive economic resources

• Ghetto attracted the dominated group; there was profits, advantages, benefits of ghettoization (northern fervor)

3. Ghettoization and ethnic cluster

• Divergence structures, and play opposite functions in the city

• The ethnic cluster, in example 1920s chicago had neighborhoods called little ireland, german town, little italy, black belt, all ghettos - park’s error, confused to put in the same bag that are different and total opposite, the black belt was formed out of constraint and hostility, little ireland - irish people chose to live there, black belt 95% is black ethnic density and 90% of blacks in the city live in the ghetto ethnic concentration, 

• Socio Spatial formations - little ireland, german town, little italy

• JEWISH GHETTO -> 16th-18th century in early modern europe : Jewish Ghetto (Jewish city within a Christian city)

  • 16th century Italy Jewish ghetto in Venice 

  • Politically determined 

  • In 16th century, believed that Jews were carriers of disease and apostasy (the giving up of religion -> relations with Jews would make you give up your religion) (stigma)

  • In Renaissance Venice, Jews created their own temples, commercial outlets, economic organizations, commerce, education

  • This ghetto attracted Jews from all over Europe 

    • Because: sense of protection, place of your own, no difficult relations with the dominant, no subordination

  • Rulers of Renaissance Europe- Diaspora of Jews needed for the Court, provided (economic) services that the prince valued (ex: long-distance trade, military equipment, financial services -> helped city garner funds to help the poor, like social welfare, Jews at cutting edge of medical and pharmacy professions) 

• US GHETTO -> 1910’s-1968 USA African Americans (in Fordist / Keynesian US)

  • Politically and socially determined

  • Migration from south to north cities -> belief that AA are carriers of disease, inferior, product of unions (mulattoes) are sterile (stigma)

  • 1910-1975 is Fordist Period: -> Fordism is economic system under which high wage labors were stable and used for mass production and mass consumption 

    • After 1975 this ended

  • ‘Keynesian’ - from economist John Keynes -> government needs to intervene into economy to support (like welfare, infrastructure)

    • ‘Keynesian Theory’ to protect from unemployment, government should inject money

    • Between 1930-1975 was Fordist Keynesian period - stable wage labor + government intervention 

  • Black Americans in US related to this need in labor (‘unskilled labor’)

    • So long as this need was there, the ghetto would exist

  • Black Belt to Ghetto (to Bronzeville - endonym)

  • “Hyperghetto”: emerges in 1960’s 

  • Need for African American workers from south:

  • ’Pull factors’

    • 1. WW1 cut off relations with Europe = no labor force/workers from Europe

    • 2. WW1 Factory workers mobilized as soldiers 

    • 3. Economic boom lacking a labor force

  • ‘Push factors’

    • 1. Boll weevil insect that kills cotton -> Black sharecroppers and Black workers demand goes down

    • 2. Mechanization -> use of combines, machines -> don’t need large scale labor force for farming

    • 3. Brutality of Jim Crow terrorism, extreme poverty, and economic dependency made them migrate 

      • WW1 opened door for large-scale migration to north

  • 3 Mechanisms to feed Great Migration 1910-1930’s; 1940’s-1960’s:

    • 1. Labor recruiters

    • 2. Kin networks

    • 3. Black press (‘Chicago Defender’ - newspaper ‘race paper’, which grew with the ghetto, 

-> Bronzeville

• Cultural Hub: Bronzeville was not merely a residential area but a vibrant cultural and social hub with a high concentration of African American businesses, professionals, and cultural institutions. It played a central role in the social and economic life of African Americans in Chicago.

• Economic Activities: The area boasted a diverse array of economic activities, with local businesses that ranged from small shops to the largest African American-owned department store in America at the time. Despite systemic racial barriers, these enterprises thrived due to community support and the entrepreneurial spirit of the residents.

• Professional and Civic Life: Bronzeville had a significant concentration of African American professionals like doctors, dentists, and lawyers, which contrasted sharply with other neighborhoods where African Americans were rarely employed in such capacities. Additionally, it was policed by African American officers, adding to a sense of community autonomy.

• Social Structures and Discrimination: The chapter outlines how Bronzeville residents navigated the complex social structures and racial discrimination of the broader society. There was a significant emphasis on community solidarity and resilience in the face of external pressures.

• Community Institutions: Important community institutions included churches, hospitals, social clubs, and educational facilities, all staffed and managed by African Americans. These institutions were central to community life and provided necessary services as well as spaces for social interaction.

• Representation and Media: Local media, particularly African American newspapers, played a critical role in representing community interests and issues, serving as a crucial platform for advocacy and information dissemination.

• Racial Pride and Identity: The residents of Bronzeville exhibited a strong sense of racial pride and collective identity, which was reflected in community events, political activism, and the cultural life of the neighborhood. This sense of identity was an important psychological resource against racial oppression and segregation.

• Social Challenges: Despite its vibrancy, Bronzeville faced numerous social challenges, including poverty, discrimination, and inadequate housing. These issues were compounded by limited economic opportunities and systemic inequalities at the citywide level.

• Race Man and Race Woman: These terms describe individuals deeply involved in advancing racial equality and empowerment within the African American community.

• Getting Ahead: This term reflects the aspirations and efforts of Bronzeville's residents to achieve social and economic progress both for individuals and the community at large.

• Ecological Areas within the Negro Community: This refers to the spatial and social stratification within Bronzeville, categorized into different areas based on socio-economic status and living conditions.

• Cult of Race: This concept deals with the strong emphasis on racial identity and pride, including the creation and celebration of "Race Heroes" who embody the struggle against racial oppression.

• BURAKUMIN GHETTO -> 20th century Burakumin in Japan, Kyoto, and Tokyo (Proto-Ghetto)

  • Belief that Burakumin were dirty, impure (stigma)

  • ‘Ghettoization without the ghetto’ -> lacks the institutional parallelism

    • You don’t get the protection from the dominant

• SUMMARY OF GHETTO:

• Ghetto

  • 4 Elements 

    • 1. Stigma

    • 2. Constraint

    • 3. Spatial Confinement

    • 4. Institutional Parallelism

  • 2 Functions

    • 1. Extraction of economic value

    • 2. Social ostracization 

Ethnoreligious/Ethnoregional/Ethnonational differences -> Identity - ghetto as crucible, inherited divisions became eroded, and shared identity emerged (Jewish people -> regional distinctions, religious differences -> shared identities/camaraderie within the ghetto) 

• Unified identity is product of the ghetto

• Unified identity is ambivalent/bittersweet = on one hand there is pride that there is space of their own, resistance to domination…BUT also resentment, because as much as you created the city on your own, it came as a result of constraint, denial of equality 

  • Langston Hughes poet -> Jesse Simple stories, represented average African American living within Chicago, expressed wisdom

• Device that provided protection and support for mobility

• Everything done to prevent sexual intercourse between Jewish men and Christian women in renaissance Italy (‘purity’)

• Structurally integrated, BUT not socially integrated

• We must distinguish the institution from the territory (and categorization that comes with the territory)

• Degree of institutional completeness ->> do you have all of the institutions you need to live in a parallel city (aka ghetto)?

  • A barrio is not a ghetto (lacks element of constraint)(kin + ethnic affinity as reasoning for living)

• Ghettos within US implode in 1960’s

• Ghettos are nearly monoethnic and class heterogeneous

  • Only greens in a neighborhood, but they are of different economic classes 

• Europe: moral panic, starting in 1990’s, “ghettos everywhere”

  • Europeans use the folk idea of ghetto (violence, poverty, destitution and disintegration, etc.) which is false

    • Confusing ghetto with hyperghetto (w/destitution and disintegration)

    • Neighborhoods are not ethno homogenous -> due to being recipient of migrants from other countries (migrants not stuck in neighborhood, they choose) 

    • Neighborhoods do not have class diversity/are not class homogenous (only poor)

• Diagram

  • Prestige at bottom (Income/quality of the neighborhood)(Neighborhoods more and more desirable as it nears top of vertical)

  • Constraint at horizontal

  • Choice 

  • (4 Quadrants)

    • Neighborhoods that arise out of seclusion (ghetto)(Quadrant 1)

      • Jail would be in this quadrant (close to ghetto)

    • Ethnic cluster, recently migrated, lower class (Quadrant 2)

    • Gated communities (aura instead of stigma, choice instead of constraint, limited segment lives there instead of all, residential concentration instead of all institutions)-> high income high amount of choice (Quadrant 3)

      • ‘Gilded Ghetto’ as metaphorical, not analytical (misleading)

    • RURAL areas- opposition between labor and land

      • Reservations - people want the land, but low prestige/income, don’t want the labor

      • Camp- Refugee camp as land and labor

    • URBAN areas - (Quadrant 4) high prestige/income, high constraint

Reservation - in the countryside

• Native americans 

  • They were not a suitable form of labor 

    • Early trading, knowing the land, prideful, etc. 

  • Two motives 

1. Neutralize military threat 

2. Capture the land 

• Given to settlers to attract them to move westwards

• Indian Removal Act of 1830 

  • Officially designated by SCOTUS as domestically dependent nations 

    • “Inferior people” 

    • Either be exterminated or assimilated 

  • Systematically evicted and they were marched into the zones

• Indians Appropriations Act of 1851

• Kanaks 

  • New Caledonia (french colony in New Zealand) 

  • Seized in 1853 by French settler colony and settlers were given plots of land

    • It was also a penal colony (colony where people are convicted of crimes deported) 

  • Removed for two uses 

1. Grazing cattle 

2. Nickel ore 

• Sits on ¼ of the nickel ore in the world 

• Two contradictory events 

  • Spoiled land and impoverished the the Kanaks 

  • Protection from diseases and of their culture. Disease almost brought them to extermination

    • Protestant missionaries and catholic missionaries which tried to convert them but they also provided them services and protection from colonial authorities 

• Pushed to east coast or mountains 

• Scrambled land rights, fostered idea that they were inassimable 

• Reservations were small tracts of land that were pushed in the wedges in the mountains 

  • Different clans had their plot of land in Poindimie but then they were put together in the same part of land 

Camp - in between city and countryside

• Camp is a socioespacial area that is not fully recognized as citizens of city, nor countryside

• Camp- socio spatial contraption characterized by insecure tenure (housing, relationship to land insecure), social precarity, special relations with authorities in city (high role with police/army/security/political)

  • 4 Types of Camps

    • 1. Labor Camps 

      • (ex: South Africa mining camps)

        • Housing tenure insecure, social position precarious, under political relations (company that employs them, not full fledged citizens, rights abridged by overarching authority)

      • (ex: Nazi labor camps)

    • 2. Refugee Camps

      • Insecure housing tenure, pushed into liminal political space, caught between war and the city (trying to escape war (displaced-losing tenure to land) but not desired in the city…peripherally urbanized de facto), subjected to special relations/different authorities (UNRWA, Israel Army), truncated rights (camps supposed to be transient, but many camps last years…ex. Palestinian camps)

    • 3. Transient Camps- People being funneled from one entity to another

      • Ex: ‘Ghettos of the Holocaust’ (Germans used term ‘ghetto’ but not a ghetto because it lacked institutional parallelism)

      • Instruments of social disintegration

        • No structural integration or social integration

    • 4. Extermination/Death Camps - people are brought in order to be killed/destroyed

      • Transitional structure

      • Ex: Nazi Rule

  • Petit Nanterre - mix of transient, labor, and ethnic clusters

Arnold van Gennon- belgian anthropologist ; inventor of notion of ‘rite of passage’ (a ceremony that marks the moving from one social status to another social status)

1. Show that there is a before and after in every rite of passage 

   1. Three phases: 

      1. 1. Separation

      2. 2. (liminal phase)

      3. 3. Aggregation

2. Ex: graduation

• Four Fundamental Elements of Violence 

  • Perpetrator 

  • Target 

  • Form 

  • Audience 

Expressive - Violence to cause harm and damage to the targeted ethnic group

Instrumental - Violence to enforce or protect one of the four other ethno racial domination

JIM CROW

• Three main forms of violence 

1. Random everyday violence by white if they did not follow racial etiquette 

• Two: symbolic and material 

• Racial etiquette 

  • Certain norms 

  • Take their hat off 

  • Boy, girl, auntie for blacks 

  • Sir, maam, captain for whites

  • Always marked inferiority of african americans

  • Denial of dignity and reciprocity 

  • Blacks were not supposed to park in the same street. They were not to do anything that they didn’t accept their place

• If you resisted there would be more violence 

2. Programs and manhunts (collective violence) 

3. Lynching 

• Three types 

  • Attempted lynching 

  • Regular lynching 

  • Public torture lynching – like a festival or whites would announce it ahead of time. Special trains were scheduled. Cars would crowd. Children would be led from school, Victims would be tortured and their bodies burned, Whites would attend all over classes

    • Instruments of caste terrorism 

      • Hierarchical grouping, birth ascribed groupings, culturally distinct, endogamous whose hierarchies are justified by purity or congenital superiority 

      • (Martha Crenshaw) Violence that has several properties (targeted, violence exercised by surprise, target is chosen because they represent a group, violence is intended to create fear and anxiety among target category, and violence is intended to send a political message)

        • In Jim Crow, terrorism wielded by governments of southern states, and violence by white southerners became deputized

          • Used to strengthen and perpetuate white control

GENOCIDE

 Genocide - mass collective killing of members of a group just because they belong to that group

• Genocides common in history

• Genocide brought to completion is eradication of group

• In modern period, (especially after ww2) notion of genocide has acquired legal quality

• Raphael Lempkin- russian Jurist who worked on producing a legal definition of genocide to be adopted by UN

• UN adopted this definition in 1948 - “UN Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide”

• Three Articles:
  1: Genocide is a crime under international law/Genocide is a crime during times of peace and war/UN will do the most to prevent this

   2: Defines what are the acts that constitute genocide that they commit “with the intent to destroy in whole or part a national, ethnical, racial, or religious group”

• Intent (5)

    1. Killing members of group

2. Causing serious bodily or mental harm

3. Deliberately inflicting conditions of life to bring about physical destruction in group or part (ex: famine)

4. Imposing measures intended to prevent birth of members of group

5. Forcibly forcing transferring children from one group to another group

3: Lists the acts that will be punished (5)

• 1. Genocide itself

• 2. Conspiracy to commit genocide

• 3. Direct and public incitement to commit genocide

• 4. An attempt to commit genocide

• 5. Complicity in genocide

Armenian Genocide (1915-1918)

Genocide of Armenians in turkey (1915-1918)

• Estimated 2 million Armenians living in Turkey for whom Turkey was historic homeland

• Corralled and deported through violent attacks, deportation, hunger

• Estimated 1.5 million Armenians killed

• To this day, Turkish state will not recognize the Armenian genocide

• Systematic destruction of the people and the culture of the Armenians

• Took place during WW1

• Wasn’t the first time Armenians were subjected to violence in Ottoman Empire

• There had been large scale massacres in 1890’s and 1909

• Starting in April of 1915, Ottoman authorities arrested first intellectuals and leaders, and then rounded up 800,000-1.2 million Armenians and sent them on death marches in Syrian Desert

• During these marches, Armenians deprived of food and water, massacred, robbed, raped

• Survivors of death marches dispersed in concentration camps

• In 1916, another wave of massacres came, during which 200,000 Armenian women and children forced to convert to Islam

• Many Amerians moved into Syria 

• Ottoman Empire tried to prevent journalists from reporting, but mass killings were covered in western newspapers and widely condemned 

• Mass killings of Armenians ceased with end of WW1, estimated between 800,000-1.5 million deaths 

• Turkish state continues to deny that there were mass killings of Armenians

• Armenian diaspora has lobbied UN and other states to recognize reality of the genocide

• Up until recently, many countries went along with Turkey by not acknowledging genocide

• But recently, European parliament and number of countries have recognized Armenian genocide 

UKRANIAN GENOCIDE (1932-1933)

Soviet Communist dictator Joseph Stalin’s Forced Famine of Ukraine (1932-1933)

• In Ukraine, during this period, movement to ask for autonomy from Soviet Union

• In retaliation, Stalin ordered the destruction of the harvest and prevented the planting of fields causing an immense famine in which it is estimated 7 million Ukrainian deaths 

• This famine is called “Holodomor” = “Killing By Hunger” -> “Plague of Hunger”

• This famine was not recognized 

• Since 2006, it has been recognized by Ukraine, European Parliamentm and most states in US as genocide against Ukrainian people carried out by Soviet

NAZI HOLOCAUST (1942-1945)

• Nazi regime organized mass killing of many target groups deemed to be “criminal races” considered to be a blemish/pollution on nation

• Starting with Jews -> Roma

•          Total of 6 million (⅔ of European Jew) Jews killed thru industrial mass murder

• Not only in death camps but mass individual killings

• Sinti Romani 250,000-500,000 deaths (½ - ¼ of Roma in Europe)

• Jews target for extermination in which Germany prosecuted and murdered other groups

  • The Slavs (particular ethnic Polish,

  • Political dissenters

  • Religious dissenters

  • Gay men

• Death toll at 17 million people killed

• (Book by Burley and Whipperman) 

  • Study of a racial state - a state built on racial division and seeks to transform reality, and realize its dream of racially pure society

• Nazi Germany 

  • Making fiction of biological superiority a reality

  • Unique in 3 ways

    • 1. Racial purity unique for the systematic virulence and nature of - biologization of the social order

      • Everything came attached to biological inferiority or superiority 

    • 2. Vigor in which the state implemented this vision, violence in which it was carried out to cleanse out Nazi ideas of foreign impurities, to strengthen Aryans for good of race and country

    • 3. For the horror of the results, genocide of millions of individuals 

• Note that South Africa apartheid used it for economic function

• Nazi Germany had no economic function

  • Goal was to take race as principle of division, reorganize class divided society into a racially divided society, making race unifying tie to 

  • Nazi Germany as racial state in that it draws and enforces racial boundaries, and defends national community as community of Aryans

-3 Steps in Demonstration behind Burley and Whipperman

• 1. The pseudoscience of race, the racial ideology that guided the Nazis (ideas: 3 theories, fusion by Hitler)

  • Chapter on barbarous utopias 

• Naziism driven by racial vision of society, 3 different strands of bio makeup of humanity

• 1. Anthropological theories: refers to long strand of thinking going back to late 18th, early 19th century which attributed moral and spiritual value to physical characteristics 

-First author was Carl Gustav Caras, who invented idea that complexion of human races reflects their inner illumination

• 4 great races: Yellow (dawn), White (day), Red (sunset), and Black (night) -> each was associate with the moment of the day and organ

- Second author was Johann Gottfired , founder of German romanticism who extolled physical superiority of ancient Germans, contrasting people with on history (Slavs)

-Third author,Arthur de Gobineaus wrote the essay on the Inequality of Human Races, all superior cultures were work of Aryan elites, when Aryans mixed with other races they entered decline

• 2. Hygienic Theories : Origin in work for Francis Galton, extended theory of Darwin to humans, argued that humans could control by genetic selection (eugenics - 1883) 

-Wilhem Shallmayer Proposed that state has duty to help improve biological capacity of its people -> forced sterilization, polygamy of good male, no more pure races in europe s all you could do was give preferential treatment ot Nordic race

-These theories were not politically inflected, both left and right supported

-Development of these theories was in response to fear of Proletarians and mix of workers int urban spaces

• 3. Antisemitic Theories: Fusion of anthropological and eugenic thinking

  • Proposed first by British thinker Houston Steward Chamberlain-> Jews as threat to Aryans, embodiment of all evils, the devil incarnate

    • Jews had been treated less than citizens since 16th century, emancipated (acquiring full citizenship) in Germany in 1869-1871 during social upheavals, rapid industrialization

      • Jews painted as responsible for everything bad modern

        • Hitler’s racial vision fused all three strands -> 

          • 1. believed particularly that living things that produce healthy beings constitute a race, 

          • 2. that there are higher and lesser races, 

          • 3. that humans have an urge towards purity, 

          • 4. that since Aryans are a superior race they should remain pure, 

          • 5. and that Jews are an absolute enemy (Jews as criminals)

            • Hitler’s Mein Kampf : demand the subordination of the inferior and weaker in accordance to the eternal will that dominates this universe"

• 2. Institutions that materialize this racial vision

• 3. Policies of persecution and extermination

• 1.Racial legislation: legal apparatus used to bolster what Hitler portrayed as ”merciless resistance against the poisoner of all peoples--international Jewry"

  • 1933: first anti-Jewish laws removed non-Aryans from jobs (if you weren’t Aryan you were fired) restricted Jews from particular professions “De-Jewification of Occupations” 

  • 1935: New set of laws to define Jews by combination of religion and ancestry, to affirm legal discrimination and to affect , prohibited sexual relation/marriage with Jews “Law for the protection of German blood and honor,” jews excluded from citizenship and equal rights -> subject to reduced set of rights, like right to vote

    • Legal definition fo Jew made with religion not ancestry, created legal basis for systemic racialization and exclusion 

  • Further laws for racial hygiene, puts women back into role of mothers, marriage loans given to couples by having children unless children physically handicapped, alien races lost civil and political rights and faced economic ruin, inferior races handled by court “Hereditary Health Court” which ordered detention, castration and forced sterilization of inferior groups, racial registration and surveillance for entire population 

• 2. Racial research: makes reference to explosion of inquiry on topic of race/definition/classifications/relations of race

  • Academics as major role of racial policies

    • 2 scholarly societies

      • German Society for Racial Hygiene

      • German Society for Anthropology - renamed itself German Society for Social Research

    • Reich = Empire / Nazi regime as 3rd reich

    • The Staff of the Committee of Experts on Population and Policy -> staff provided funds, created academia positions, proposed programs of research on race = Academic research as integral part of Nazi apparatus of Nazi classification, control, extermination all in name of science

    • Nazi policies of racial domination and extermination were justified by the two paramount symbolic agencies, which are the law and science

• 3. Racial Bureaucracies: bureaucratic machine for racial division and violence

  • Proliferation of agencies, committees, bureaus within state responsible for carrying out nazi vision

    • Three offices

      • 1. The Committee of Experts on Population and Racial Policy (research and control racially targeted group)(June 1933 - 3 main groups) - role of coordination

        • 1. Class - Group entrusted with registering poor families 

        • 2. Race - Committee of racial hygiene, eugenic

        • 3. Gender - education and welfare “spiritual renewal of women” pursued “enablement of desire to reproduce”

          • Along with racial division, Nazis were keen on restoring traditional gender order

            • Women in home, life mission to produce Aryan children

      • 2. Office of Kinship  Research- proofs of ancestry, necessary for exceeding to office and rise as member of party, stringent racial tests on ancestry/blood, one had to show no ancestor that was Jewish all the way back to 1800 to be accepted into party (incoherence, no Jewish ancestor - how do you decide if they’re jewish? By religion -> if done by blood, how can you go on religion) (incoherence)

      • 3. Reich Committee for the Scientific Registration of Serious Hereditary and Congenital Based Illnesses - people deemed mentally and physically deficient, who would then be subjected to policy of elimination, office responsible for euthanasia of children

        • Reich Association of Asylums responsible for adult "euthanasia"

          • Nazi policy of eugenics well-rounded

          • Foster production of racially positive eugenics (women give birth to 

          • Negative eugenics, two strands of euthanasia, eliminating ‘defective” 

    • Eventually, offices brought under authority of , Heinrich Himmler (head of the Gestapo, SS) - secret state police, surveil, kill, torture people considered to be threat to Nazi state

      • Multiplication of agencies entrusted with racial responsibility created bureaucratic chaos/conflict/competition -> brutalization and radicalization of racial policy

    • In state’s apparatus, the SS (paramilitary organization) played key role

      • Sometimes name was “Protective Staff” = Schutzstaffel

        • At core of Nazi state

      • Started out as small group of bodyguards protecting Nazi leaders, expanded into powerful institution under autorit y fo Heinrich Himmler

      • Notorious for enforcing Nazi policies and carrying out many atrocities of WW2

        • Two Branches

          • 1. General SS - handled policy duties and internal security, control of domestic population of Germany

          • 2. Armed SS -combat branch, fought aside german military

        • SS played major role in Genocidal policy

          • Set up first camps, organized transit and death camps , carried out racial arrests and deportation ( for instance,

          • “Office for Combating the Gypsy Nuisance”/”Office for Combating Homosexuality and Abortion” / “Agency for Ancestral Heritage” - decided people’s genealogy and racial classification, pseudo-scholarly enterprise or enforce Aryans as descendants from heaven and preserved in ice in north cap of Europe/ “Well of Life Agency” - maternity homes ran or single mothers who bore racially tested children, for abduction of foreign children to be put into these homes to be germanized)

            • First, political dissidents

            • Second, Jews, Romani, Slavs, physically handicapped, homosexuals (enemies of Nazi state)

• Policy of extermination was not initial goal of Nazis

  • Stages that led to final ‘solution in 1942 (Madagascar plan before Siberia Plan)

    • At first, plan was to move jews to eastern part, cleanse body of Germany from enemies (through deportation)

      • Deportation to east of europe so that territory of germany was free from German Jews -> if pushed to east, racial body would be wholesome

        • But then Germany decided “Syberia Plan” -> as Germany captured more east territories, they needed to expel Jews further east to Siberia

          • Nazis struck deal with Soviet Union, agreed that neither would attack the other - but Hitler violated, tried to conquer SU/Russia

            • This violation made Siberia Plan moot

              • Plan before Siberia Plan was “Madagascar Plan” = all jews in germany and other german territories would be rounded up and transported to island of Madagascar of southeastern coast of Africa

    • First, restriction of employment, civil rights, access to public service limited then barred

    • Gradually informal social ostracization developed

      • Jews encouraged to give up participation in associations

    • Then, series of measures 1933-1935, promoted self interest of Aryans, and laws designed to exclude jews from national community, public defamation, public burning of books, Anti Semitic proo=paganda, public officials calling for violence

    • 1935, Jews disenfranchised, made members of Reich, but lacing rights of citizenship (rights were abridged)

    • Discriminatory measures in everyday life 

    • 1936, Hitler/gov propaganda argued that the ‘whole of Jewry” was criminaldom, denounced international Jewry, called Jews criminals by virtue of their sole existence

      • Jews responsible for economic damages suffered from WW1

    • 1937, decree instituted death penalty for persons guilty of sexual relations with Jew

    • 1936-1938, lull in persecution of Jews because these measures became known in foreign countries, indignation and concern in other countries, Germans needed access to currency and resources

    • 1937, peak in persecution, antisemitic laws and measures extended to Austria, policy of ‘Aryanization of economy’ (consisted in expropriating Jewish businesses that managed to survive and tighter registration and regulation og Jewish activities which resulted in poverty and unemployment)

      • Burleigh and Wipperman : systematic intended to isolate/humiliate

        • Street names that were Jewish names were re-named

        • Jews not allowed to sit on benches, required to use names “Israel”and “sarah”, yellow star, passports marked with “J”, banned from pigeons as communicative conspiracies, radio sets confiscated, driver licenses voided, rising tensions caused by war 

          • When Germany invaded Russia, it resulted in 

    • Germany invade RUssia 1938

    • Czech and Poland in 1939

    • 1940, invaded Belgium, Netherlands, and France

    • 1941, yugoslavia and Greece

    • 1941 june, Hitler made mistake of invading Soviet Union, massive invasion = failed, increased tension inside Germany, increased paranoia about the ‘enemy within’, As Germany captured more countries, it increased number of Jews under its canopy -> physical elimination

      • Military resources stretched from both West and East Fronts

    • 1942, Nazi leaders hatched plan to create death camps in which Jews would be funneled, as well as Roma, political opponents, LGBTQ

      • Network of camps included 3 types of camps

        • 1. Work camps- people captured served as slave labor to produce labor for war economy of Germans

          • As war expanded, more people from labor force pushed into military

            • Increased industrialization - declining workforce

        • 2. Transit Camps - populations regrouped, kept, until such time to be dispatched to other camps

        • 3. Death Camps - prisoners moved, killed through industrial means, where literally thousands of people killed everyday, ion particular by use of gas chambers

          • Prisoners would be taken from transit camps/’ghettos’, sorted out, told that they were moving east in order to be taken to work camps where they would be reunited with their families

            • But when they arrived at the death camps, they were walked to the entrance of chambers that looked like gigantic shower rooms, told to take their clothes off, leave belongings, take a shower and regroup. But when they came into chambers, gas instead of water came out, and killed them

              • Women, children, men separated

              • After killing, prisoners would take bodies to crematorium

                • 6 million Jews killed in death camps (2 million in Auschwitz alone)

                • This form of killing was bureaucratic, industrial, and efficient 

    • At first, elimination was individual execution style, in east of Germany where group called “Special Groups”= Einsatzgruppen  would go from Polish village to village, round up Jews, make them dig their own graves, and then execution style kill them

      • These killings were “retail killings” - committing tens of thousand of murders face to face

        • This policy replaced by mass murder of gas chambers for two reasons

          • 1. Inefficient - scale of killing of Jews was too great to just do individual killings

          • 2. Retail killing created psych damage to German soldiers who carried out the killings

            • Concern that commanders could not absorb emotional shock of retail killing on mass scale

        • We see same escalation in response to result to the ‘Gypsy Problem”

    • Goal to rid national body of impurity, only leave those with superior bio makeup

    • Nazi Germany

      • First domain of Racial Classification

        • Jews as criminals, defective as criminals

          • Only a vision

      • When capturing means of division, like the state, you can make vision come true

        • Policies of Nazi state

CAMBOIA GENOCIDE - POL POT (1975-1979)

Genocide of Pol Pot in Cambodia (in East Asia, near Vietnam and Laos) (1975-1979)

• Control of Cambodia by man Pol Pot in 1970’s

• Dream of forming peasant society “Khemer Rouge”

• Estimated that Pol Pot Genocide resulted in death of 1.5-2 million people (¼ of total Cambodian population)

• Massacres ended only when Vietnam military invaded Cambodia in 1978 and toppled regime

• Targets captured and put in security prison, then taken to killing fields where killed (pickaxes and buried in mass graves)

• Abduction and indoctrination of children

• Direct execution counts for half of genocide death toll

• Another half were victims of starvations, exhaustion and disease caused by policies of Pol Pot

RWANDAN GENOCIDE (1994)

• Genocide in Rwanda (1994)

• Landlocked country in middle of Africa, used to be Belgian colony

• Two major ethnic groups: Tutsis and Hutus

• These two ethnic groups are similar: speak same language, traditions, same area, 

• Tutsis are often taller, thinner, and Pastoralists (herd cattle)

• Hutus are shorter, thicker, tend to be agriculturalists

• Differences cultivated by Belgian power as means of divide and control

• In this period, Hutus controlling government, but president of Hutus was victim of attack, resulted in Hutu government launching wave of retaliation against Tutsis 

• In less than 100 days, upwards of 800,000 Tutsis killed by Hutus militia using clubs and machetes, killing as many as 10,000 people each day

• Resulting in death of 70% of total Tutsi population 

• Method of killing used by Hutus

• Retaliatory mass murder

• Individual Tutsis hacked to death, blown up by churches, encouragement of ordinary citizens (some forced by police to commit murders)

• Morally questioning aspect fo this genocide was that whole world was watching, massacre had been announced

• French military was there and could have stopped genocide, but orders from French government was to withdraw

EXTERMINATION

Conditions that make extermination more likely

• 1. When definition of group is clear cut

  • For instance, division based on descent, who is an x who is a y is easier

    • Fuzzy boundary makes it more difficult to deliver systematic violence

• 2. Violence likely to escalate to ethnic cleansing or extermination when dominant groups economic and competitor

  • Ethnic cleansing = removal of group from territory

    • Extreme variant is physically eliminating 

• 3. When labor of group is not needed

  • Ex: Tasmanians in Australia -> when british colonies deported people and captured Australia, they captured Tasmania, physically eliminated through disease, stealing of land, routine and individual killings of Tasmanians

    • Opposite of South Africa, black labor needed

• 4. When labor is needed, but not usable or not willing to give labor

  • Two cases:

    • 1. Native Americans in US

    • 2. Cannachs in New Caledonia

      • Both removed and put into reservations 

        • Historian Patrick Wolfe: types of elimination through physical or absorption

• 5. If group cannot be forcibly expelled

  • Genocide as most extreme form of racial domination

    • Paradox: no longer have sacrificial category to blame ills of society on if all are eliminated

5 Properties of classification system: 1. Degree of institutionalization: Broadly recognized, whether or not is institutionalized by the state, census, activist groups and media, they are official, sort of like what happened with the MENA. 2. Degree of congruence: Euphemism of people, eg. Soviet Union, Brazil and France. 3. Degree of which categories are either doxic or contested. 4. Fluidity: Some classification systems are fluid and have fuzziness within their boundaries, there’s no clear lines for which people can tell what to do and what not to do. 5. Domains of legitimacy: In some domains it is acceptable to mention someone’s origin in some it is very disrespectful. 

Judenrat: Jews that ran their own affairs, parallel political & government structures.

Hyper Ghetto: Double segregation of race & class. AND loss of economic function, loss buffer, social control constraint

Hyper-segregation: A group that scores high in all dimensions of segregation (Massey)

Ethnocentrism: Seeing your group as above others.

Gilded Ghetto: Metaphorical. Meant to describe gated communities.

“Grit Thesis”: False idea that lynchings were only committed by the lower white class. Middle and high class would also watch and participate. 

Urban Seclusion: The process through which urban spaces are designed or structured to isolate certain populations based on economic, racial, or social criteria

Marginality: The state of being marginalized or pushed to the edge of society, often referring to groups that are disadvantaged due to socio-economic, racial, or other systemic factors.

Socio-Spatial Mechanisms: The interplay between social dynamics and spatial organization that influences how urban environments segregate or integrate different populations.

State Policies: Government actions or strategies that influence urban planning and the socio-economic structure of cities, impacting how and where people live

Urban Planning: The technical and political process concerned with the development and design of land use and the urban environment, including air, water, and the infrastructure passing into and out of urban areas.

Social Inequalities: The unequal distribution of resources and opportunities among different groups within society, often based on characteristics like race, gender, and socio-economic status.