ss 2025 World History 1 Part II: Maners/Social Studies ~ Study Guide Guiding questions to get you thinking - topics to think about and have some idea

Unit 1 ~ Patterns of Life ~

Cultural Universals

• Elements of culture that are found across all human societies, including language, religion, and family organization.

Chinampas

• Floating gardens used by the Aztecs for agriculture, allowing for increased crop production in the watery environments around Tenochtitlan.

Tenochtitlan

• The capital city of the Aztec Empire, located on an island in Lake Texcoco, known for its complex canal system and elaborate temples.

Aztec Religion

• A polytheistic belief system, which revolved around many gods, especially Huitzilopochtli, the god of war and the sun. Rituals often included human sacrifices to appease the gods and ensure agricultural fertility.

Huitzilopochtli

• The primary deity of the Aztec pantheon, associated with the sun and warfare; worshipped extensively in the Aztec empire.

Quipu, Ayllu, Quechua

• Quipu: an Incan method of record-keeping using knot strings.

• Ayllu: traditional Incan communal family groups, which facilitated agriculture and resource sharing.

• Quechua: the language of the Inca and still spoken by millions in the Andean region today.

Incan Unity

• The integration and administration policies that united diverse cultures within the vast Incan Empire, establishing a common language and facilitated trade.

Mita

• An Incan labor system that required citizens to work on state projects, including agriculture, mines, and construction, which were crucial for the empire’s economy.

Push/Pull Factors of Exploration

• Factors that prompted individuals to migrate or explore new territories, including economic opportunities (pull) and conflict or scarcity (push).

Pull Factors: God, Gold, Glory

• The driving motivations behind European explorations: seeking religious conversion, wealth acquisition, and national prestige.

Hernan Cortes

• Spanish Conquistador known for leading the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and claimed Mexico for Spain.

Conquest of the Aztec Empire

• A pivotal event in 1519-1521 marked by alliances with rival tribes and the use of superior weaponry by the Spanish, leading to the downfall of Tenochtitlan.

Francisco Pizarro

• Spanish Conquistador responsible for the conquest of the Incan Empire in the 1530s using similar strategies as Cortes.

Conquest of the Incan Empire

• Involved deception and the capture of the Incan ruler Atahualpa, leading to the rapid collapse of their civilization.

Columbian Exchange

• The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World following Columbus' voyages, profoundly impacting both worlds.

Jared Diamond’s Theories

• Theories relating to the factors that led to the unequal distribution of wealth and power throughout civilizations, emphasizing geography and access to resources as crucial components.

Encomienda System

• A Spanish labor system that started in the Americas where Spanish settlers were given the right to extract labor from indigenous people in exchange for protection and Christianization.

Gold & Salt Trade

• Essential trade networks that shaped West African kingdoms; gold was highly sought after, while salt was necessary for preservation and health.

Griot

• West African storytellers and oral historians who preserved and conveyed the history and culture of their communities through oral tradition.

West African Kingdoms

• Powerful empires like Ghana, Mali, and Songhai that flourished due to trade, particularly in gold and salt, and were influential in the spread of Islam.

East African Kingdoms

• Kingdoms such as Aksum and the Swahili city-states that were pivotal in the trade network between Africa, the Middle East, and Asia, marked by cultural blending and commerce.

Animism

• The belief in the reverence of nature, spirits residing in living things, emphasizing a deep connection to the natural world prevalent in many Indigenous African religions.

Swahili

• A Bantu language with Arabic influences, used as a lingua franca in trade along the East African coast.

Mansa Musa

• The 14th-century emperor of the Mali Empire, known for his extravagant pilgrimage to Mecca and for boosting trade and education within his empire, very rich

Ibn Battuta

• A Moroccan explorer who traveled extensively across the Muslim world, documenting his experiences and contributing to knowledge about the medieval Islamic world.

Ming Dynasty

• The ruling dynasty of China from 1368 to 1644 known for its trade expansion, cultural flourishing, and the construction of the Forbidden City.

Dynastic Cycle ~ Mandate of Heaven

• The Chinese philosophical concept that describes the rise and fall of dynasties through the approval of the divine mandate, where a dynasty maintains control until it becomes corrupt or weak.

Edict of Haijin

• A policy issued during the Ming Dynasty that restricted Chinese maritime trade and influenced interactions with foreign powers.

Qing Dynasty

• The last imperial dynasty of China, ruling from 1644 to 1912, marked by expansion and the eventual decline due to internal strife and foreign invasion.

Mughal Empire

• A powerful empire in India known for its rich culture and architectural achievements, including the Taj Mahal, as well as significant contributions to art and literature.

Aurangzeb

• The last effective Mughal emperor, whose reign (1658-1707) saw expansion but also internal conflict and opposition to his strict interpretation of Islam.

Graduated Income Tax

• A taxation system where the rate of tax increases as the taxable amount increases, aimed at addressing economic inequality.

Akbar

• The Mughal Emperor known for his policy of religious tolerance and efforts to integrate diverse cultures within his empire.

Cultural Blending

• The process whereby different cultures influence each other, often leading to innovations in art, religion, and social practices.

Hard/Soft Power

• Hard power refers to the use of coercion or force (military), while soft power emphasizes influence through cultural or ideological means (diplomacy).

Hierarchy

• A system of ranking individuals or groups in which some are prioritized over others, evident in societal structures and political organizations.

Absolutism

• A political doctrine and form of government where a single ruler possesses absolute power, often justified by divine right.

Louis XIV

• Known as the Sun King, he ruled France from 1643 to 1715, embodying the principles of absolutism and centralized power at Versailles.

Balance of Power

• A principle in international relations where states maintain stability by preventing any one state from overpowering others, often through alliances and diplomacy.

Unit 2 ~ Revolution! ~

Overview

• Covers approximately 10-15 Questions related to the social, political, and economic revolutions of the period.

Key Concepts

Types of Power

• The different forms of power including economic, military, political, and cultural influence that shape societies and relationships between nations.

Enlightenment

• An intellectual movement of the 17th and 18th centuries emphasizing reason, individualism, and skepticism of traditional authority, leading to revolutionary ideas in government and society.

3 Estates

• A social classification in pre-revolutionary France, dividing society into three groups: the clergy, the nobility, and the common people (Third Estate).

Long & Short Term Causes of the French Revolution

• Factors including social inequality, financial crises, the influence of Enlightenment ideas, and political corruption that fueled revolutionary sentiments in France.

Estates-General

• An assembly representing the three estates convened in 1789 to address the financial crisis, ultimately leading to the formation of the National Assembly.

Louis XVI

• The last King of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution, whose indecisiveness contributed to the revolutionary fervor.

Marie Antoinette

• Queen of France and wife of Louis XVI, known for her extravagant lifestyle, which fueled public disdain during the revolution.

Jacques Necker

• Financial advisor to Louis XVI whose dismissal incited the public outcry leading to the Revolution, advocating for reforms.

Tennis Court Oath

• An oath taken by members of the Third Estate in June 1789, vowing not to disband until they had drafted a new constitution for France.

National Assembly

• A revolutionary assembly formed by the representatives of the Third Estate, which aimed to pass laws and reforms in the name of the French people.

Storming of the Bastille

• A symbolic event on July 14, 1789, where revolutionaries stormed the Bastille prison, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.

Maximilien Robespierre

• A leading figure in the French Revolution, known for his role in the Reign of Terror, he believed in the necessity of eliminating enemies of the revolution.

Jean-Paul Marat

• A radical journalist and politician during the French Revolution known for his inflammatory writings that incited public action against perceived threats.

Georges Danton

• A prominent revolutionary leader who initially supported the revolution but later fell victim to the excesses of the Reign of Terror.

Sans-culotte

• Working-class men and women who played a key role in the French Revolution, advocating for direct democracy and social equality.

September Massacres

• A series of killings in September 1792 where revolutionary partisans executed prisoners suspected of counter-revolutionary activity.

Declaration of the Rights of Man

• A fundamental document of the French Revolution affirming the rights and liberties of individuals and the tenets of liberty, equality, and fraternity.

Charlotte Corday

• A figure in the French Revolution known for assassinating Jean-Paul Marat, believing it would save the revolution from violence.

Reign of Terror

• A period from September 1793 to July 1794 characterized by extreme political repression and mass executions to eliminate opposition.

The Great Terror

• A phase of the Reign of Terror marked by paranoia and the execution of thousands, often on dubious charges of counter-revolutionary activities.

Committee on Public Safety

• A political body during the French Revolution tasked with protecting the republic against foreign and internal enemies, often associated with the Reign of Terror.

Regicide of Louis XVI

• The trial and execution of King Louis XVI in January 1793, marking the transition from monarchy to republic in France.

Festival of Supreme Being

• A deistic festival established by Robespierre in June 1794, reflecting the revolutionary leaders' desire to create a new moral society.

Thermidorian Reaction

• The revolt against the excesses of the Reign of Terror in July 1794, leading to the fall of Robespierre and a relaxation in political repression.

White Terror

• The violent backlash against the triumph of revolutionary ideals post-Terror, often targeting Jacobins and their supporters.

Directory

• The government of France from 1795 to 1799 characterized by corruption and political strife, ultimately leading to the rise of Napoleon Bonaparte.

Napoleon Bonaparte ~ Hero or Tyrant?

• A complex historical figure whose military success and subsequent rise to power brought substantial reforms but also led to autocratic rule and wars across Europe.

Brumaire Coup

• The coup of November 9, 1799, wherein Napoleon seized control of the government, establishing himself as First Consul and ending the Directory.

First Consul

• The title held by Napoleon from 1799-1804, which allowed him to consolidate power and implement significant reforms in France.

Napoleonic Code

• A comprehensive set of laws established by Napoleon, influencing legal systems worldwide by promoting principles of civil rights and secular order.

Concordat

• An agreement between Napoleon and the Catholic Church in 1801, which reestablished the church's influence in France while maintaining state control.

Battle of Trafalgar

• A significant naval battle in 1805 where the British fleet led by Admiral Nelson decisively defeated the French and Spanish navies, ensuring British naval supremacy.

Admiral Horatio Nelson

• A British naval commander known for his strategic genius at sea, particularly during the Battle of Trafalgar, where he died in battle.

Continental System

• Napoleon's foreign policy aimed at weakening Britain through economic blockade and restricting trade; ultimately unsuccessful and led to widespread resentment.

Peninsular War

• A conflict from 1808-1814 in which Spanish and Portuguese forces resisted French occupation, significantly draining resources and troops from Napoleon’s army.

Invasion of Russia ~ Scorched Earth Policy

• Napoleon's ill-fated invasion of Russia in 1812, where the Russian army retreated, destroying resources as they went, leading to massive French losses.

Elba

• The island where Napoleon was exiled in 1814 following his first abdication; he later escaped and returned to power in France.

100 Days

• The period of Napoleon's return to power in 1815 before his final defeat at the Battle of Waterloo and subsequent exile to St. Helena.

Battle of Waterloo

• The decisive battle in June 1815 that ended Napoleon's rule, marking the restoration of the Bourbon monarchy in France.

Duke of Wellington

• The British general who led the coalition forces to victory against Napoleon at the Battle of Waterloo.

Nationalism

• A political ideology that emphasizes the interests of the nation, often resulting in movements for national independence or unity.

St. Helena

• The island in the South Atlantic where Napoleon was exiled for the second time after his defeat at Waterloo, where he died in 1821.

Congress of Vienna

• A conference held in 1814-1815 to restore European balance of power and monarchies after the fall of Napoleon, led by major powers like Austria, Britain, and Prussia.

Prince Klemens Von Metternich

• An Austrian diplomat who played a key role in the Congress of Vienna, advocating for conservative policies and the restoration of monarchies in Europe.

Bonapartism in Latin America

• The influence of Napoleon’s rule and ideas in Latin American independence efforts, where leaders often borrowed from the ideals of liberty and governance he promoted.

Mexican Revolution

• A major armed struggle (1910-1920) resulting in a significant shift in political power, land reform, and social change in Mexico.

Hidalgo & Morales

• Key leaders in the early phases of the Mexican Revolution, with Miguel Hidalgo initiating the revolt against Spanish rule in 1810.

Haitian Revolution

• The successful anti-slavery and anti-colonial insurrection by self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule (1791-1804), leading to the establishment of Haiti as the first independent black republic.

Social Groups on Haiti

• The complex hierarchies and divisions within Haitian society prior to the revolution, including whites, free people of color, and enslaved people.

Toussaint Louverture

• A leader of the Haitian Revolution who emerged as a key figure in the fight for liberty and independence before his capture by French forces.

Brazilian Revolution

• A relatively peaceful process (1822) that led to Brazil's independence from Portugal, marked by the declaration of Dom Pedro I as its emperor.

Pedro I

• The first Emperor of Brazil, who played a decisive role in the country's independence and established a constitutional monarchy.

Peninsulars vs. Creoles

• Social hierarchies in colonial Latin America, where peninsulars (Spanish-born settlers) held privileges over creoles (descendants of Spaniards born in the Americas), leading to tensions that fueled independence movements.

Simon Bolivar

• A key figure in the Latin American independence movements, known as El Libertador for his role in liberating several countries from Spanish rule, including Venezuela, Colombia, and Bolivia.

Bolivarianism

• A political philosophy and movement promoting independence, unity, and social justice based on the ideas of Simon Bolivar.

Casta System

• A hierarchical social classification system in colonial Latin America, dictating social status according to race and ethnicity.

Impact of LA Revs on Society

• Examines the social, political, and economic effects of the various revolutions in Latin America, including shifts in power dynamics and societal structures.

Unit 3 ~ Imperialism & Resistance ~

Overview

• Roughly 15 Questions that focus on the causes and outcomes of imperialism, resistance movements, and significant revolutions.

Key Concepts

1830 Revolutions ~ Causes, Countries, Outcomes

• This wave of revolutions arose from a mix of discontent with absolutist regimes and the demand for national independence across Europe, notably in Belgium and Poland.

1848 Revolutions ~ Causes, Countries, Outcomes

• A widespread series of political upheavals throughout Europe driven by nationalist sentiments, demands for democracy, and social grievances.

Communist Manifesto

• Written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, this pamphlet outlined the principles of communism and critiques of capitalism, advocating for class struggle and revolution.

Congress of Vienna/Concert of Europe

• The Congress aimed to re-establish a balance of power in Europe after Napoleon; the Concert of Europe sought to maintain that balance through periodic agreements among major powers.

Prince Klemens Von Metternich

• As a staunch conservative diplomat, Metternich's efforts in the Congress of Vienna were pivotal in establishing the post-Napoleonic order in Europe.

Nationalism

• A unifying ideology that arose alongside romanticism, calling for political self-determination for ethnic groups and nations during the struggles for independence.

Nation-state

• A sovereign state whose citizens or subjects are relatively homogeneous in factors such as language or common descent, often linked to the rise of national identities.

Unification, Separation, State-building

• Explores various movements for unification (like Germany and Italy) or separation (nationalist movements in Austria-Hungary), and the processes involved in building states.

German Confederation

• A loose association of German states established after the Congress of Vienna, which ultimately paved the way for German unification under Bismarck.

Otto Von Bismarck

• The Prussian statesman who masterminded the unification of Germany through diplomacy and wars, employing the philosophy of realpolitik.

Iron Chancellor

• A term used to describe Bismarck, reflecting his role as the dominant political figure in Germany who used strength and cunning to achieve his objectives.

Realpolitik

• A pragmatic approach to politics that emphasizes practicality and realism over ideology, famously employed by Bismarck in his policies.

Blood and Iron

• A phrase used by Bismarck to express the idea that great achievements in unification must be wrought through war and effective governance, rather than speeches and diplomacy.

Reichstag

• The parliament of the German Empire, which played a crucial role in shaping laws and policies after the unification of Germany.

Zollverein

• A customs union established in 1834 among the German states, facilitating trade and economic cooperation, crucial for the later unification of Germany.

Unification of Germany ~ 3 Wars of Unification

• The wars fought to unify Germany under Prussian leadership, consisting of the Danish War, Austro-Prussian War, and Franco-Prussian War, each adding territories and influence to Prussia.

Versailles ~ Hall of Mirrors

• A significant location in the Palace of Versailles where the Treaty of Versailles was signed in 1919, marking the end of World War I and establishing new territorial boundaries in Europe.

German Nationalism and Its Context

• German Racial Nationalism: This ideology emerged as a significant political force in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, emphasizing ethnic identity and superiority, often linked to the idea of a homogeneous German nation, which marginalized non-German ethnic groups.

• Kulturkampf: The "culture struggle" led by Otto von Bismarck aimed to reduce the influence of the Catholic Church in German society and politics, reflecting the tensions between state and church and promoting a unified national identity under Protestant ideals.

• Nationalism in Europe: Throughout the 19th century, nationalism fueled movements for unification (like Germany and Italy), independence, and the formation of nation-states, profoundly affecting political landscapes across Europe, including the decline of empires like Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire.

Qing Dynasty and Its Challenges

• The Century of Humiliation: A term describing the period of intervention and imperialism in China from the mid-19th century until the establishment of the People's Republic in 1949, characterized by foreign domination and loss of territory.

• Spheres of Influence: These were regions in China where foreign powers held exclusive rights over trade and investment, further entrenching foreign control and undermining Chinese sovereignty, leading to resistance movements.

• Open Door Policy: Proposed by the United States in 1899 to ensure equal trading rights for all nations, this policy aimed to prevent the division of China into colonies while maintaining American commercial interests.

• Qing-British Foreign Relations: Marked by conflict and negotiation, these relations shifted dramatically following the Opium Wars, leading to unequal treaties that favored British trade interests.

• Lin Zexu: A Qing official known for his staunch opposition to the opium trade, Lin Zexu took significant measures to curb the addiction among Chinese citizens, notably by seizing opium stocks, which incited the First Opium War.

• Opium Wars: Conflicts (1839-1842 and 1856-1860) that arose from disputes over trade, especially the British export of opium to China. The wars ended with humiliating defeats for China and the imposition of the Treaty of Nanking.

• Treaty of Nanking: Signed in 1842, it was the first of the unequal treaties, forcing China to cede Hong Kong to Britain and open several ports to British trade, significantly undermining Chinese sovereignty.

• Unequal Treaties: A series of agreements that benefited Western powers at China's expense, leading to territorial losses and economic disadvantage for the Qing Dynasty.

• Taiping Rebellion: A massive civil war (1850-1864) led by Hong Xiuquan, who proclaimed to be the brother of Jesus Christ, seeking to overthrow the Qing government, resulting in millions of deaths and further weakening of the dynasty.

• Self-Strengthening Movement: A late 19th-century initiative aimed at modernizing China's military and economy by adopting Western technology while maintaining Confucian values, but it ultimately failed to prevent foreign dominance.

• Boxer Rebellion: A violent anti-foreign and anti-Christian uprising that occurred from 1899 to 1901, led by the Society of Harmonious Fists. It sought to expel foreign influence from China, resulting in intervention by an international coalition.

• Empress Cixi: The de facto ruler of China during the late Qing dynasty, she opposed many reforms, leading to resistance against modernization and contributing to the dynasty's eventual collapse.

• Sun Yat-sen: A key figure in the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty, he is considered the father of modern China, advocating for a national revival and democracy through the principles of nationalism, democracy, and people’s livelihood.

Imperialism and Its Global Impact

• Imperialism: The policy of extending a country's power and influence through colonization, military force, or other means, significantly shaping global politics and economies from the 19th century onward.

• Types of Imperialism: Varieties include colonies, protectorates, and spheres of influence—all defining how powers exert control over territories and peoples.

• Political Hegemony: Refers to influence exerted by powerful nations over weaker ones, often justified through moral and ideological frameworks.

• Direct and Indirect Control: Two methods of governance during imperialism; direct control involves outright annexation, while indirect control relies on local rulers to maintain order under the overarching authority of the imperial power.

• European Motivations: Factors driving imperialism included economic gain, national prestige, and the desire to spread civilization and Christianity, often justified by ideologies such as Social Darwinism.

• Social Darwinism and the White Man's Burden: Concepts that rationalized imperialism as a duty of Western powers to civilize "savages," seen as both a paternalistic effort and a cruel justification for colonial domination.

• Jared Diamond's Views on Africa: In his work, he explores geographical determinism and how factors like environment and natural resources influenced the trajectories of societies.

• Guns, Germs, and Steel: Diamond argues that these elements shaped the fates of societies by determining their capacity for conquest and interaction during the age of imperialism.

• Problems for Europeans in Africa: Challenges included disease, resistance from local populations, and the difficulties of navigating diverse cultures and geographies.

• Industrial Revolution: Provided technological advancements that fueled imperialism, enabling faster transportation and communication, as well as the development of weaponry.

• Quinine: A drug used to prevent and treat malaria, it became crucial for European powers to establish and maintain colonies in tropical regions of Africa.

• Maxim Gun: The first self-powered machine gun, exemplifying the technological superiority of Europeans which was often used to suppress colonial resistance.

• Steam Engines, Steamboats, and Railroads: Innovations that facilitated the movement of goods and troops, enhancing the efficiency and reach of colonial powers.

• Slave Trade: A dark chapter in the history of imperialism, where millions of Africans were forcibly transported as laborers to the Americas, significantly impacting demographics and economies.

• Cecil Rhodes and Rudyard Kipling: Figures emblematic of imperialist attitudes; Rhodes was a proponent of British colonial expansion in Africa, while Kipling advocated for the idea of "the white man's burden" through his literary works.

• Berlin Conference: Held in 1884-1885, it regulated European colonization and trade in Africa, leading to the arbitrary partitioning of the continent among various imperial powers without regard to indigenous cultures or borders.

• Congo Free State: Established under King Leopold II of Belgium, this region became notorious for its brutal exploitation of resources and people, leading to international outcry and eventual reformation.

• Rubber Production: Became a significant aspect of colonial economies, particularly in the Congo Free State, with devastating impacts on local populations due to forced labor practices.

• Leopold II: The Belgian king whose rule over the Congo Free State was marked by extreme exploitation, resulting in millions of deaths and suffering among the Congolese.

• Force Publique: The military force established by Leopold II to enforce his regime's policies, often using violence and coercive methods against local populations.

• George Washington Williams: An African American historian and journalist who condemned the atrocities committed in the Congo Free State and sought to expose the harsh realities of colonial rule.

• Congo Reform Association: A movement that emerged in response to the exploitation in the Congo, advocating for human rights and reform in Congo-related policies.

• Scramble for Africa: The rapid invasion and colonization of Africa by European powers in the late 19th century, driven by competition for resources and strategic advantage.

• Henry Stanley and David Livingstone: Prominent figures in the exploration of Africa, with Stanley known for his search for Livingstone and subsequent encouragement of further colonial exploration.

• King Mojimba: A lesser-known African leader whose specifics remain overshadowed by larger narratives in the colonial history of Africa.

• Markets & Raw Materials of Each Region: Various regions in Africa offered unique resources, from minerals to agricultural products, fueling the economic interests of colonial powers.

• Colonial Kenya: Became a focal point for British settlement and agricultural development, leading to conflicts with indigenous peoples.

• Mau Mau Uprising: A rebellion in the 1950s against British colonial rule in Kenya, emphasizing the struggle for land and self-determination.

• Jomo Kenyatta: The leader of the Kenyan independence movement and the first President of Kenya, instrumental in shaping post-colonial policies.

• Colonial Ghana: Known as the Gold Coast, it was the first African country to gain independence from colonial rule, setting a precedent for other nations.

• National Congress of British West Africa: An early political organization advocating for the rights and independence of West African colonies.

• Kwame Nkrumah: A leading figure in Ghana's independence movement and its first Prime Minister, promoting pan-African unity.

• Colonial Congo and Algeria: Different colonial experiences, where the Congo faced brutal exploitation, while Algeria experienced prolonged conflict for independence against French imperial forces.

• Algerian War (FLN): A conflict for Algerian independence from France (1954-1962), marked by guerrilla warfare and significant violence on both sides.

• Jewel in the Crown: A term referring to India as the most valuable colony in the British Empire, vital for its resources and economic wealth.

• British East India Trading Company: Initially a trading body, it transformed into a territorial power, leading to significant political and social changes in India.

• Doctrine of Lapse: A policy used by the British to annex Indian territories, igniting widespread discontent leading to the Sepoy Mutiny.

• Hindu/Muslim Conflict: Historical tensions exacerbated during British rule, influencing political dynamics and national identity in colonial India.

• Sepoy Mutiny (Rebellion): A major revolt in 1857 against British rule in India, reflecting deep-seated grievances among Indian soldiers and civilians.

• British Raj and Viceroy: The period of direct British rule in India post-rebellion, characterized by significant political and social changes, headed by a Viceroy representing the British monarch.

• Benefits and Problems of the British Raj: While it brought infrastructure and education, it also resulted in exploitation and cultural disruption.

• Dadabhai Naoroji: An early Indian nationalist who advocated for self-rule and exposed injustices of British rule through political activism.

• Indian National Congress and Muslim League: Political parties that emerged advocating for Indian independence, representing different community interests.

• Amritsar Massacre: A tragic event in 1919 where British troops killed hundreds of Indian protesters, galvanizing national sentiment against colonial rule.

• Samurai (Clans): The warrior class in Japan that played a crucial role in Japanese history, especially during the feudal period and the transition to the modern state.

• Gun-Boat Diplomacy: The use of naval power to achieve foreign policy objectives, exemplified by Commodore Matthew C. Perry's opening of Japan to American trade.

• Meiji Restoration: The period beginning in 1868 when Japan underwent rapid modernization, transforming from a feudal society into a global power.

• Japanese Militarism and Expansion: Characterized by aggressive military policies, expansion into Korea, and later into China, reflecting Japan's aspirations for empire in the early 20th century.

• Korean Colony: Korea was annexed by Japan in 1910, leading to a period of harsh colonial rule until the end of World War II.

• Sino-Japanese War (1894-1895): This conflict marked Japan's emergence as a regional power, illustrating its military strength against a major Asian rival.

• Russo-Japanese War (1905-1906): A conflict between Russia and Japan, resulting in a surprising victory for Japan, establishing it as a significant colonial power.

Here are some shuffled questions and terms based on the notes provided:

Test Questions

1. What term describes the process where various cultures influence each other and may lead to innovations in art and religion?

2. Identify the Incan labor system that required citizens to work on state projects.

3. Who was the Spanish Conquistador responsible for leading the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire?

4. What was the name of the significant event where revolutionaries stormed a prison in 1789, marking the beginning of the French Revolution?

5. What was the significance of the Columbian Exchange?

6. Describe the Taiping Rebellion.

7. Which leader of the Haitian Revolution was known for emerging as a key figure in the fight for independence?

8. What was the outcome of the Battle of Trafalgar?

9. Define the Qing-British foreign relations during the Opium Wars.

10. Name the movement led by Sun Yat-sen that sought to establish democratic ideals in China.

Terms

• Cultural Blending: The process whereby different cultures influence each other, often leading to innovations in art, religion, and social practices.

• Mita: An Incan labor system that required citizens to work on state projects, including agriculture, mines, and construction.

• Hernan Cortes: Spanish Conquistador known for leading the expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire.

• Storming of the Bastille: A symbolic event on July 14, 1789, marking the beginning of the French Revolution.

• Columbian Exchange: The widespread transfer of plants, animals, culture, human populations, technology, and ideas between the Americas and the Old World.

• Taiping Rebellion: A massive civil war in China (1850-1864) led by Hong Xiuquan, seeking to overthrow the Qing government.

• Toussaint Louverture: Leader of the Haitian Revolution who emerged as a key figure fighting for liberty and independence.

• Battle of Trafalgar: A naval battle in 1805 where the British fleet decisively defeated the French, ensuring British naval supremacy.

• Opium Wars: Conflicts that arose from disputes over trade, especially the British export of opium to China, ending in humiliating defeats for China.

• Sun Yat-sen: Key figure in the overthrow of the Qing Dynasty, advocating for nationalism, democracy, and people’s livelihood.

Additional Test Questions from Unit 1

21. What are cultural universals and provide examples?

22. Describe the importance of chinampas in the Aztec agricultural system.

23. What was the role of Tenochtitlan in the Aztec Empire?

24. Examine the structure of Aztec religion and its central deities.

25. Who was Huitzilopochtli and what was his significance in Aztec culture?

26. Explain the function of quipu in the Incan Empire.

27. What is an ayllu, and how did it contribute to Incan society?

28. Describe the concept of Incan unity and its importance for the empire.

29. Define the Mita system and its impact on the Incan economy.

30. Discuss push and pull factors of exploration during the Age of Discovery.

Unit 2 Questions

1. What are the different forms of power that shape societies and relationships between nations?

2. What was the Enlightenment, and how did it influence revolutionary ideas?

3. What was the Estates-General, and what role did it play in the French Revolution?

4. Describe the significance of the Storming of the Bastille in 1789.

5. What characterized the Reign of Terror during the French Revolution?

6. What were the major components of the Napoleonic Code?

7. What events led to the Battle of Waterloo, and what was its outcome?

8. What was the purpose of the Congress of Vienna, and what were its main outcomes?

1. What are cultural universals, and can you provide examples of three elements that qualify as such?

2. Describe the importance of chinampas in the agricultural practices of the Aztec Empire.

3. Discuss the role of Tenochtitlan in the economic and political structure of the Aztec Empire.

4. How did Aztec religion influence societal norms and practices, particularly regarding rituals and sacrifices?

5. Who was Huitzilopochtli, and what significance did he hold in the Aztec pantheon?

6. Explain the function of quipu in the Incan Empire and how it facilitated record-keeping.

7. What is an ayllu, and how did this structure support Incan society's agricultural and social needs?

8. Describe the concept of Incan unity and its impact on the administration of the Incan Empire.

9. What is the Mita system, and how did it contribute to the economic stability of the Incan state?

10. Identify and explain at least two push and two pull factors of exploration during the Age of Discovery.