Untitled Flashcards Set

1. Primacy Effect

• Definition: The tendency to remember the first items in a list better than middle items.

• Why?: Early items get more rehearsal and move into long-term memory.

• Example: If you hear a list of groceries (milk, bread, eggs, oranges, pasta, cereal), you’re more likely to recall "milk" and "bread" later.

• Application: Helps explain why studying earlier topics in a lecture is easier to recall.

2. Recency Effect

• Definition: The tendency to remember the last items in a list better than middle items.

• Why?: Items at the end of the list are still in short-term memory.

• Example: In a phone number list, you might remember the last few digits best.

• Application: This effect disappears if there’s a delay before recall, like distraction or another task.

3. Iconic Memory

• Definition: A type of sensory memory for visual stimuli that lasts for a fraction of a second.

• Example: If you see a flash of lightning, you briefly retain the image after it disappears.

• Application: Explains why we can process fast-moving visuals (movies, scrolling text).

4. Partial Report vs. Whole Report

• Partial Report: When asked to recall only part of the information (e.g., a row of letters), performance is betterthan when recalling everything.

• Whole Report: When asked to recall everything, performance drops.

• Why?: Sensory memory fades quickly, and partial reports help isolate what we need to recall.

5. Baddeley’s Working Memory Model

• Central Executive: Directs attention, coordinates tasks.

• Phonological Loop: Stores and processes verbal info (repeating phone numbers).

• Visuospatial Sketchpad: Stores and manipulates visual/spatial info (mental map of a room).

• Episodic Buffer: Links info across domains (linking a story to a personal memory).

6. Working Memory Capacity

• Definition: The ability to hold and manipulate information temporarily.

• Applications: High working memory = better at multitasking, problem-solving, and reasoning.

7. Levels of Processing (Craik & Lockhart)

• Shallow Processing: Based on surface features (e.g., font, sound).

• Deep Processing: Based on meaning, leads to better recall.

• Example: Remembering “dog” because you think about a pet you had vs. just reading the word.

8. Transfer-Appropriate Processing

• Definition: Memory is better when retrieval matches encoding.

• Example: If you study by writing answers (recall-based), you’ll do better on an exam with essay questions than multiple-choice.

Attention & Perception

9. Early vs. Late Selection (Attention)

• Early Selection: Filters out irrelevant information before processing meaning.

• Late Selection: Processes all information, filtering occurs after meaning is analyzed.

• Example: Cocktail party effect—hearing your name in a noisy room supports late selection.

10. Exogenous Orienting

• Definition: Attention is captured automatically by stimuli (e.g., a loud noise, flashing light).

• Example: Looking towards a fire alarm sound without consciously deciding to.

11. Stroop Effect

• Definition: Interference between automatic and controlled processing.

• Example: Naming the color of the word RED when it’s printed in blue.

• Application: Demonstrates how reading (automatic) interferes with naming colors (controlled).

12. Feature vs. Conjunction Search

• Feature Search: Looking for a single distinguishing feature (e.g., finding a red circle among blue ones).

• Conjunction Search: Requires looking for a combination of features (e.g., a red circle among red squares and blue circles).

13. Contrast Sensitivity

• Definition: The ability to detect differences between shades or brightness.

• Example: Seeing a white object against a slightly gray background.

14. Ebbinghaus Illusion

• Definition: Perception of a circle's size is influenced by surrounding circles.

• Example: A central circle appears smaller when surrounded by larger circles.

Memory Types

15. Episodic vs. Semantic Memory

• Episodic: Personal experiences (e.g., your last birthday).

• Semantic: General knowledge (e.g., knowing that Paris is the capital of France).

16. Implicit vs. Explicit Memory

• Implicit (unconscious): Skills, habits (e.g., riding a bike).

• Explicit (conscious): Facts, personal experiences.

17. Memory for Emotional Events

• Flashbulb Memory: Vivid, detailed memory of emotionally significant events (e.g., where you were during a major event).

• Illusions of Memory: Memories can feel real but contain errors (e.g., thinking you remember 9/11 details perfectly when memories have changed over time).

Other Important Topics

18. Infantile Amnesia

• Definition: The inability to recall memories from early childhood.

• Why?: Brain structures (hippocampus) aren’t fully developed.

19. Reminiscence Bump

• Definition: People recall more memories from ages 10-30 compared to other periods.

• Why?: Many first-time experiences, identity formation.

20. Context-Dependent Memory

• Definition: Memory is better when retrieval occurs in the same context as encoding.

• Example: Studying in a quiet room helps recall better on a quiet exam day.

21. H.M. (Neurobiological Memory)

• What he could do: Learn new motor skills (implicit memory intact).

• What he couldn’t do: Form new explicit memories.

22. Memory Illusions & Fluency Illusions

• Memory Illusions: False memories (e.g., recalling "sleep" in a word list with "bed," "dream," and "tired").

• Fluency Illusion: Feeling like you know something just because it's familiar, but you can’t recall it under pressure.

23. Prototypes vs. Exemplars

• Prototype Theory: We categorize based on an "average" representation (e.g., generic dog image).

• Exemplar Theory: We categorize based on actual stored examples (e.g., your childhood dog).

24. Levels of Categorization

• Superordinate: Broad category (e.g., "animal").

• Basic Level: More specific, but most useful (e.g., "dog").

• Subordinate: Even more specific (e.g., "golden retriever").

• Why Important?: The basic level is where we naturally categorize best.