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4. Observation Methods and Recording Techniques

Naturalistic Observation

  • Definition & Scope

    • Also known as field work or field observation.

    • Researchers observe in a natural setting over an extended period, using various techniques.

    • Roots in anthropology and animal behavior; used in social sciences for studying phenomena in social/organizational settings.

    • Primarily qualitative: focuses on descriptions, not quantitative statistical summaries.

  • Purpose & Focus

    • Aims to describe and understand how people live, work, and experience a social/cultural setting.

    • Emphasizes context and meaning, rather than testing a priori hypotheses.

  • Method Description

    • Researchers immerse themselves in the setting.

    • Observation usually covers everything: setting, relationships, event reactions.

    • Goal: provide a complete and accurate data set.

  • Immersion & Experiential Understanding

    • Allows researcher to experience reality from participants' perspective.

    • Requires substantial time in the setting to understand daily life.

    • Personal reflections are integral for analysis and new insights.

  • When to Use

    • Ideal for early stages of qualitative inquiry, with broad interests and without rigid checklists.

    • Helps discover recurring patterns of behavior and relationships.

    • Checklists become appropriate and context-sensitive after patterns are identified.

    • Focused observation can later test if analytic themes explain behavior over time/across settings.

  • Field Notes Example

    • Detailed observational diary entries describe elements like people, room layout, activities, and routine.

    • Includes observer impressions (e.g., inviting room, routine familiarity).

    • Specific details may cover dimensions, features, decorations, and lighting.

  • Research Goals (Summary)

    • Describe settings, events, and individuals observed.

    • Analyze observations to generate hypotheses.

    • Report findings through a coherent descriptive structure.

  • Procedures & Data Sources

    • Methods include: observing, interviewing, reviewing documents (e.g., newspapers, memos), audio/video recordings.

    • Street ethnography: research in potentially dangerous settings (e.g., police work, drug users).

  • Advantages

    • Accurately portrays natural settings (home, classroom, workplace).

    • Reflects clients' life and context; researcher positionality can be explicit.

    • Effective for high-frequency or global behaviors (e.g., attention deficits, social withdrawal).

    • Useful for measuring change following an intervention.

  • Disadvantages

    • Requires extensive time commitment.

    • Difficult to measure infrequently occurring behaviors (e.g., aggression, fire-setting) or private behaviors.

    • Not suitable for all issues or phenomena.

  • Key Issues

    • Participation & Concealment: Deciding researcher involvement (extent) and whether to reveal study purpose (ethical/setting-dependent).

    • Defining Scope: In complex settings, comprehensive observation is impossible; focus is essential.

Systematic Observation

  • Contrast with Naturalistic Observation

    • Also called controlled or structured observation.

    • More focused on specific behaviors in a controlled or simulated setting.

    • Observations are typically quantifiable and guided by prior hypotheses.

  • Overview & Steps

    • Involves clear definitions of behaviors, explicit procedures, objective standardized protocols.

    • Context and timing of sampling are explicitly determined.

    • Scoring and coding are conducted in a standardized fashion.

  • Procedural Guidelines (Hintze, Volpe, & Shapiro, 2002)

    • Use well-defined, operationally defined behaviors a priori.

    • Record observations with objective, standardized sampling procedures.

    • Explicitly determine context and timing of sampling.

    • Standardize scoring and coding; ensure context consistency.

  • Best Practices

    • Defining Behaviors/Codes: Clear, discrete, a priori, mutually exclusive, exhaustive definitions. Standardize procedures, pilot-test, and blind observers when possible.

    • Sampling/Recording Rules: Minimize participant reactivity; observe each participant once per session/day.

    • Training: Establish interobserver reliability; use standardized manuals and trained observers.

    • Data Collection, Reliability & Validity: Use standardized procedures; minimize observer drift and biases; assess reliability (e.g., agreement between raters).

    • Ethics: Obtain IRB approval & informed consent/assent; protect participant welfare.

  • Coding Systems & Examples

    • Nursing home resident behavior: 5 categories (e.g., resident independent/dependent, staff supportive).

    • Family Interaction Coding System (FICS): 29 categories (e.g., aversive, pro-social).

    • Used in controlled/simulated settings for studies on honesty/deceit (Hartshorne & May, 1930).

  • In Clinical Settings

    • Valuable for infrequent behaviors; may require role-play or simulation.

    • Disadvantage: Inferences may not generalize to real-life situations.

  • Methodological Issues

    • Equipment: Choices include paper/pencil, video, timing tools.

    • Reactivity: Observer presence may alter behavior; concealment strategies reduce reactivity.

    • Reliability: Use multiple raters; calculate inter-rater reliability (e.g., Cohen's Kappa).

    • Sampling: Longer observation periods yield more reliable data.

Techniques of Observation Recording

  • Narrative Recording

    • Qualitative descriptions, often a preliminary step for structured methods.

    • Strengths: Generates hypotheses, useful for low-frequency behavior, requires little equipment.

    • Weaknesses: Not quantifiable, difficult reliability assessment, observer skill-dependent.

  • Event Recording

    • Counts each occurrence of a target behavior.

    • Measures frequency, duration, and intensity.

    • Suitable for clear, discrete actions (e.g., aggressive actions, greetings, verbal expressions).

  • Interval Recording

    • Divides observation into equal intervals; records behavior presence within each.

    • Whole Interval: Behavior occurs during the entire interval.

    • Partial Interval: Behavior occurs at any time during the interval.

    • Steps: Decide interval length, define beginning/end cues for behavior.

    • Strengths: Allows sequence analysis, estimates frequency/duration, tracks multiple behaviors simultaneously, time-efficient.

    • Weaknesses: Can be artificial, may miss other important behaviors, requires more observer effort.

    • Time Sampling (Details)

    • Observations at fixed moments (e.g., every 5 minutes).

    • Strengths: Direct measure of prevalence in a group, good for high-rate/continuous behavior.

    • Weaknesses: May miss low-frequency behaviors between samples.

    • Data Examples: Engagement vs. off-task behavior recorded minute-by-minute; conversational initiation (+/-) across 1-minute intervals.

  • Sequential Act Coding

    • Records events in order of occurrence; requires comprehensive coding.

    • Reliability can be challenging due to boundary issues.

    • Inefficient if sequences are not the primary interest.

  • Duration Recording

    • Times the length of a single behavior.

    • Also records latency (time between occurrences).

  • Global Rating Scale

    • Observer makes a holistic judgment about behavior quality (e.g., motivation, mood, symptom severity).

    • Examples: Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale (BPRS), Motivation Assessment Scale (MAS).

    • Scale Examples (Elevated Mood from BPRS): Items describe mood elevation severity (mild to severe) with specific anchors; prompts check duration, intensity, and functional impact.

  • Environmental Measures

    • Focus on the psychological environment, not individuals.

    • Includes behavioral mapping and unobtrusive physical measures to infer activity patterns.

Key Concepts & Practical Considerations

  • Reliability, Reactivity, & Validity Summary

    • Reactivity: Participant behavior changes due to observer presence; strategies include concealment, acclimatization.

    • Reliability: Use multiple raters; calculate inter-rater reliability (e.g., Cohen's Kappa).

    • Validity: Ensure observational codes capture intended constructs; consider ecological validity.

  • Practical Tips & Considerations

    • Define behaviors precisely and pilot-test coding schemes.

    • Balance qualitative depth (naturalistic richness) with quantitative rigor (reliability, validity).

    • Consider ethical implications in sensitive/dangerous settings (street ethnography).

    • Use multiple methods (triangulation) where feasible (e.g., narrative notes plus interval recording).

  • Formulas & Numerical References

    • Interval Recording Intervals: n = \frac{T}{\tau} (where T = total time, \tau = interval length).

    • Behavior Rate: \text{Rate} = \frac{N_{occurrences}}{T}.

    • Cohen's Kappa (Inter-rater Reliability): \kappa = \frac{p_{o} - p_{e}}{1 - p_{e}} (p_{o}=observed agreement, p_{e}=expected by chance).

  • References

    • Cozby, P.C. (2005). Methods in Behavioral Research. 9th Ed.

    • Trull, T.J. (2005). Clinical Psychology. 7th Ed.

    • Barker, C., Pistrang, N., & Elliott, R. (1994). Research Methods in Clinical and Counselling Psychology.