Chapter 8 Human Population Vocabulary Flashcards
Objectives
8.1 Describe the scope of human population growth.
8.2 Discuss divergent views on population growth.
8.3 Explain how human population, affluence, and technology affect the environment.
8.4 Explain the fundamentals of demography.
8.5 Describe the concept of demographic transition.
8.6 Explain how family planning, the status of women, and affluence affect population growth.
Case Study: Will China’s New “Two-Child Policy” Defuse Their Population “Time Bomb”?
(1 of 3) In 1970, China instituted a population control program that restricted most couples to a single child.
Efforts included increased accessibility to contraceptives and abortion, rewards for single-child families, and fines and social scorn for those with more.
Fertility rates dropped from 5.8 to 1.7 children per woman.
The growth rate dropped from 2.8% to 0.5%.
(2 of 3) The one-child policy created problems—the population’s labor force shrank, the percentage of elderly increased, and there were too few women.
The culturally increased value of male children combined with the one-child policy had led to selective abortion and the killing of female children.
The male-to-female ratio is unbalanced, creating large numbers of young men who cannot marry.
(3 of 3) The population “time bomb” of an aging population and skewed male-to-female ratios has led to a change in Chinese policies.
In 2013, married couples who were only children were granted permission to have two children.
In 2015, the one-child policy was immediately altered to a two-child policy.
It is unclear how many Chinese couples, used to greater wealth and an urban lifestyle, will grow their families.
Our World at Nearly 8 Billion
China is not the only country with population issues; the current world population is over
7.7\text{ billion}, with most of the growth in poorer nations.
The Human Population Is Growing Rapidly
The human population is currently growing at a rate of
88\text{ million per year}; that is
2.8\text{ people added every second}.The population didn’t reach 1 billion until after 1800.
A billion people are currently being added about every
12\text{ years}.
Exponential Growth and Doubling Time
This is an example of exponential growth, where a small percentage growth rate still produces a large increase due to the size of the base population.
Doubling time can be estimated by the rule of 70: \text{Doubling time} \approx \frac{70}{r}
where r is the annual growth rate (in percent).
Global doubling time: \frac{70}{1.2\%} \approx 58\text{ years}.
China’s doubling time prior to the one-child policy: \frac{70}{2.8\%} \approx 25\text{ years}.
Is Population Growth a Problem?
Improvements in sanitation, modern medicine, and higher agricultural output have reduced infant mortality.
Why is population growth a problem if infant mortality is down? That question leads to broader resource and environmental pressures.
Population Growth: Historical Perspectives and Modern Realities
Before the industrial revolution, high birth rates were considered positive:
More children to support parents in old age, and a larger labor pool for factories.
Thomas Malthus argued that numbers would outgrow food supply.
Paul and Anne Ehrlichs have been called “neo-Malthusians.”
Despite a quadrupling of the human population, some predictions have not materialized due to:
Intensified food production.
Increased prosperity, education, and gender equity slowing birth rates.
Nevertheless, population growth continues to deplete resources, stress social systems, and degrade the environment.
Population Is One of Several Factors That Affect the Environment
IPAT model shows how impact (I) results from interaction of: I = P \times A \times T
Population (P): more people means more space use, resource use, and waste.
Affluence (A): higher per-capita resource consumption.
Technology (T): can increase impact by enabling resource exploitation, or decrease it by improving efficiency.
A sensitivity factor (S) can be added to denote the vulnerability of a given environment: I = P \times A \times T \times S
Example: western China’s arid lands are more sensitive due to slow plant growth.
Modern-day China provides examples where IPAT elements interact:
Intensive agriculture causing erosion similar to the Dust Bowl.
Heavy extraction from aquifers and rivers.
Beijing air quality is so poor that a day of breathing its air is like smoking about 40\text{ cigarettes}.
Review Questions (Selected)
Review Questions 1 (1 of 2): As shown by this graph, the human population is experiencing fill-in-the-blank growth.
a. linear
b. exponential
c. logistic
d. negative
Review Questions 1 (2 of 2): As shown by this graph, the human population is experiencing fill-in-the-blank growth.
a. linear
b. exponential
c. logistic
d. negative
Review Questions 2 (1 of 2): According to the IPATS model, which of these changes would reduce environmental impact?
a. An increase in the overall affluence of the global society
b. A decrease in the human population growth rate
c. Technological advances in resource harvesting
d. Consuming resources in a more sensitive environment
Review Questions 2 (2 of 2): (Same as above; answer: typically b and/or c depending on interpretation.)
Demography: The Study of the Human Population
Principles of population ecology can be applied to humans (demography).
Despite technology, knowledge of population ecology and logistic growth suggests limits to growth.
Demography Is the Study of the Human Population (1–8)
Demographers study:
Size, distribution, age structure, sex ratio, rates of birth, death, emigration, and immigration.
Current population size: about 7.6\text{ billion} across ~200 nations.
Projection: likely to surpass 9.8\text{ billion} by 2050.
Other demographic aspects determine environmental impact beyond population size.
Age structure diagrams (population pyramids) describe relative numbers in each age class and help predict future growth.
Population Pyramids and Growth Implications
Wide base pyramid indicates potential for rapid future growth.
Even age distribution indicates a stable population.
Narrow base indicates shrinking population.
Nigeria vs Canada example illustrates how a large youth concentration predicts higher growth than a country with fewer young people.
Aging and Sex Ratios
Global population is aging: median age today ~ 28; projected to be 38 by 2050.
Fewer young workers supporting more elderly creates strain on social welfare programs.
Naturally occurring sex ratio at birth is about 106:100 (males:females).
In China, distributions are skewed due to historical policies and cultural preferences; approximately 116: boys:100: girls.
Birth and Death Rates Drive Population Change
The birth-to-death ratio has been historically stable but shifts as death rates fall.
Global infant mortality declines have driven population growth.
Infant mortality in China dropped from 47/1000 in 1980 to 11/1000 in 2016.
Recent decades: falling birth rates have contributed to a global slowdown in growth.
Immigration and Emigration: Migration Dynamics
Migration: movement between countries.
Immigration: people entering a country.
Emigration: people leaving a country.
Examples (net migration rates):
Spain: +7.8
Canada: +5.7
United States: +3.9
Germany: +1.5
Japan: 0
China: -0.4
Mexico: -1.8
Turkey: -4.5
El Salvador: -8.0
Lebanon: -20.3
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) and Its Influence on Population Growth
Total Fertility Rate (TFR): the average number of children born per woman in her lifetime.
Replacement fertility: the TFR that keeps population size stable; for humans, this is 2.1.
Industrialization, women’s rights, and health care have decreased TFR in many nations.
Nearly every European nation has a TFR below replacement level.
Worldwide by 2015, 84\% of countries had fallen below replacement fertility.
Regional TFRs (examples):
Africa: 4.6
Australia & South Pacific: 2.3
Latin America & Caribbean: 2.1
Asia: 2.1
North America: 1.7
Europe: 1.6
Demographic Transition: Many Nations Are Experiencing It (1–5)
Industrialized countries have seen life expectancy rise due to lower infant mortality.
Countries still industrializing pass through stages of demographic change called the demographic transition.
Stage descriptions:
Pre-industrial: death rates high due to disease, rudimentary health care, unreliable food; birth rates also high; population size is stable.
Transitional: death rates decline due to better food and health care; birth rates remain high; population increases.
Industrial: birth control and employment opportunities for women reduce birth rates; growth slows and stabilizes.
Post-industrial: population growth stabilizes or begins to shrink.
Some nations may not complete the transition, leading to demographic fatigue (e.g., many sub-Saharan countries with high populations and HIV/AIDS).
Will China and India Complete the Demographic Transition?
Both are in intermediate stages; India may overtake China in population size at some point due to less aggressive population control policies.
Review Questions: Demographic Transitions and Pyramids
Review Questions 3 (1 of 2): A country with a population pyramid shaped like this most likely has a fill-in-the-blank population.
a. stable
b. growing
c. shrinking
d. fluctuating
Review Questions 3 (2 of 2): A country with a population pyramid shaped like this most likely has a fill-in-the-blank population.
a. stable
b. growing
c. shrinking
d. fluctuating
Japan and Demography: Fertility and Growth
Japan’s total fertility rate is 1.4. Compared to the replacement level, this indicates a population that is:
a. growing rapidly
b. growing slowly
c. stable
d. shrinking
Answer: d. shrinking (due to TFR well below 2.1).
Population Growth Stages by Demographic Transition
Review Questions 5 (1 of 2): A country experiencing a decrease in death rates due to improvements in food and health care, while birth rates remain high and population grows rapidly is in which stage?
a. Preindustrial
b. Transitional
c. Industrial
d. Post-industrial
Review Questions 5 (2 of 2): Answer: b. Transitional
Population and Society: Factors Affecting Fertility
There are many economic and societal factors that affect fertility:
Access to contraceptives
Acceptance of contraceptive use
Level of women’s rights
Cultural influences (e.g., television programs)
Level of affluence
Importance of child labor
Availability of governmental support for retirees
Family Planning Slows Population Growth (1 of 2)
Family planning: effort to plan the number and spacing of one’s children.
Birth control: all efforts to reduce the frequency of pregnancy.
Contraception: deliberate attempts to prevent pregnancy despite sexual activity.
Some family-planning organizations provide free or discounted condoms, spermicides, hormonal treatments, or sterilization.
Rates of use vary widely: as high as 84\% in China and the UK; less than 10\% in some African nations.
Family Planning Slows Population Growth (2 of 2)
Low contraceptive use may reflect limited availability (rural areas) or cultural/religious resistance.
Access to family planning gives women control over their reproductive window.
Family-Planning Programs Are Working Around the World
Rapidly growing countries have implemented family-planning programs, often less intrusive than China’s one-child policy.
Bangladesh example: contraception access and reproductive counseling lowered its TFR from 7.0 to 2.3.
Empowering Women Reduces Fertility Rates
Equality in decision-making power and access to education and job opportunities lowers fertility rates.
Equal rights enable women to make reproductive decisions themselves, contributing to lower fertility and better child care.
Fertility Decreases as People Become Wealthier (1 of 2)
Poorer societies tend to have higher fertility rates than wealthier ones.
Economic factors are closely tied to population growth:
Poverty exacerbates population growth.
Rapid population growth worsens poverty.
Fertility Decreases as People Become Wealthier (2 of 2)
Most of the next billion added will come from emerging economies, which means continued economic strain and potential environmental degradation due to poverty.
Expanding Wealth Can Escalate a Society’s Environmental Impacts (1–2)
Affluence is built on unsustainable levels of resource consumption.
The addition of 1 person from a wealthy country (e.g., United States) has the same impact as about 3.4 Chinese, 8 Indians, or 14 Afghans.
If humanity’s ecological footprint exceeds Earth’s biocapacity, it is an ecological deficit; if footprint is less, there is an ecological reserve.
Population Goals and Sustainable Development
Fertility determinants are complex; slowing growth requires diverse, flexible, culturally specific initiatives.
A 1994 UN conference recommended a shift from top-down birth-control policies to bottom-up approaches that address poverty and social needs first.
There is no one-size-fits-all solution; policies must be tailored to the nation.
Review Questions: Population Growth and Ecology (Summary)
Review Question 6 (1 of 2): Which factor has a positive correlation with fertility rates and population growth?
a. Higher affluence
b. Higher rates of education for women
c. Economic poverty
d. Women having equal say in family planning
Review Question 6 (2 of 2): Answer: c. Economic poverty (poverty is positively correlated with higher fertility in many contexts).
Review Question 7 (1 of 2): Which statement is true about current world population and ecological footprint?
a. Poorer nations, due to high growth, have a greater ecological footprint.
b. The human population’s ecological footprint is less than the global biocapacity.
c. The human population is generating an ecological reserve.
d. The human population is generating an ecological debt.
Review Question 7 (2 of 2): Answer: d. Ecological debt.
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