APHUG Midterm Review Notes

1.1: Types of Maps

• Mercator Projection: Distorted towards poles; useful for navigation.

• Gall-Peters Projection: Accurate size; shape distortion at poles.

• Goode Homolosine Projection: Interrupted; good size/shape; poor direction.

• Robinson & Winkle Triple Projections: Good size, shape, direction.

• Reference Maps: Show boundaries, names, geographic features.

  • Small Scale: Large area, little detail.

  • Large Scale: Small area, lots of detail.

• Thematic Maps: Show spatial patterns using specific data.

  • Choropleth: Colors/shading indicates values.

  • Dot Density: Specific locations using dots.

  • Graduated Circle/Symbol: Population-based data.

  • Isoline: Groups areas with lines/colors.

  • Cartogram: Area size displays population.

  • Flowline: Directionality of movement.

• Absolute Direction: Cardinal directions (N,E,W,S).

• Absolute Location: Exact location (lat/long).

• Relative Direction: Based on surroundings (left, right).

• Relative Location: Description based on features.

1.2: Geographic Data

• GIS: Layered satellite images.

• Remote Sensing: Satellite images.

• GPS: Location data using lat/long.

• Observation Types:

  • Field: Firsthand data gathering.

  • Secondhand: Documents, interviews, narratives.

• Data Analysis:

  • Qualitative Data: Word form, interpretive (e.g., opinions).

  • Quantitative Data: Numerical form, replicable (e.g., census).

1.3: Geographic Data in Action

• Geospatial Data: Location-based data (e.g., stores, taxes).

• Local Government: Data for zoning/schools.

• Regional Government: Voting/budget specifics.

• National Government: Laws, citizen needs.

• Businesses: Store locations, income data.

1.4: Site & Situation, Sense of Place & Spatial Concepts

• Spatial Concepts: Location and relationships in space.

• 1st Law of Geography: Relatedness decreases with distance.

• Distance Decay: Interaction diminishes with distance.

• Time-Space Compression: Travel time reduction increases interaction.

• Interdependence: Goods exchanges lead to reliance.

• Networks: Organized functional systems.

• Node: Centralized location for processes.

• Flow: Movement of people, goods, ideas.

• Diffusion: Movement of items in space/time.

• Spatial Association: Object relationships in an area.

• Clustered/Nucleated: Close spacing.

• Dispersed: Wide spacing.

• Patterns: Grid/linear arrangements.

• Place: Specific Earth point with characteristics.

  • Physical Characteristics: Natural features.

  • Human Characteristics: Cultural/social aspects.

• Sense of Place: Emotional connection.

• Site Factor: Physical features of a location.

• Situation Factor: Surrounding locational features.

1.5: Environmental Determinism, Possibilism & Land Use

• Environmental Possibilism: Limits exist but can be modified with technology.

• Environmental Determinism: Environment limits lifestyle choices.

• Land Use:

  • Agricultural: Farming.

  • Industrial: Manufacturing.

  • Commercial: Retail.

  • Residential: Housing.

  • Recreational: Parks.

  • Transportational: Infrastructure.

• Natural Resources:

  • Renewable: Regenerate (trees, water).

  • Non-renewable: Finite use (oil, coal).

• Sustainability: Resource use for future generations.

1.6: Scales of Analysis

• Scale: Map to real-life distance relationship.

• Levels of analysis: global, continental, national, regional, local.

• Scale of Analysis: Observational data at varying scales.

1.7: Regional Analysis

• Region: Area with distinct characteristics.

• Core Area: Dominantly characterized area.

• Informal Region: Debatable areas (e.g., Central Jersey).

• Formal Region: Defined boundaries (e.g., Great Lakes).

• Functional Region: Center-focused organized areas.

  • Networks: Integrated functional node areas.

• Perceptual Regions: Based on belief.

2.1: Population Distribution & Density

• Ecumene: Permanently settled Earth portion.

• Population Density: Number of people in a space.

  • Arithmetic Density: Total population/land area.

  • Physiological Density: Total population/arable land.

  • Agricultural Density: Farmers/arable land.

• Population Distribution: Spatial spread of people.

• Pull Factor: Attracts people to an area.

• Push Factor: Deters people from an area.

2.2: Consequences of Population Distribution

• Political Consequences: Uneven distribution affects political power; rural areas are underrepresented.

• Social Consequences: Funding disparities between urban and rural.

• Economic Consequences: Affects funding for services and job opportunities.

• Environmental Consequences: Urban areas lack green spaces.

2.3: Population Pyramids

• Snapshot of population demographics.

• Wider bottom = younger; wider top = aging population.

• Sex Ratio: Male/female population balance.

• Dependency Ratio: Children + elderly / working-age population.

2.4: Understanding Population Dynamics

• Population Factors:

  • Fertility: Birth rates.

  • Mortality: Death rates.

  • Migration: Movement rates.

2.5: Demographic Transition Model

• Stages:

  1. High CDR, low RNI (primitive).

  2. Lower CDR, increasing RNI.

  3. Decreasing CBR & CDR (industrial).

  4. Low CBR & CDR (zero growth).

  5. Low CBR below CDR (negative growth).

• Replacement Rate: TFR > 2.1 to maintain population.

2.6: Thomas Malthus and Population Growth

• Overpopulation Theory: Food production vs. population growth.

2.7: Population Policies

• Anti-Natalist Policies: Decrease birth rates (e.g., China’s One-Child Policy).

  • Methods: Propaganda, birth control, immigration promotions.

2.8: Women and Demographic Changes

• IMR, CMR, MMR: Indicators of health care quality.

• Better economic opportunities lead to career-focusing women, lower TFR, MMR.

2.9: How Aging Populations Impact Society

• Life Expectancy: Influenced by various factors.

• Dependency Ratio: Elderly vs. working-age population.

2.10: Why Do People Migrate

• Push Factors: Deter migration (high taxes, corruption).

• Pull Factors: Attract migration (job opportunities, safety).

2.11: Forced & Voluntary Migration

• Forced migration: Involuntary due to emergencies.

• Voluntary migration: Choice-based; includes chain and transnational migration.

2.12: Effects of Migration

• Economic: Boosts economy; may lead to brain drain.

• Cultural: Enriches culture but may spur nativism.

3.1: Defining Culture

• Culture: Shared societal practices.

  • Material: Physical objects.

  • Non-Material: Ideas/beliefs.

3.2: Analyzing Cultural Landscape

• Cultural Landscape: Mix of human and physical influencing the land.

3.3: Cultural Centripetal and Centrifugal Forces

• Centripetal: Aspects that unite groups.

• Centrifugal: Aspects that divide groups.

3.4: Types of Diffusion

• Diffusion: Spread of cultural elements.

  • Hearth: Starting point.

  • Relocation, Expansion: Types of spread.

3.5: Historical Causes of Diffusion

• Acculturation, Assimilation, Creolization: Influences on culture.

3.6: Contemporary Causes of Diffusion

• Cultural Divergence: Separation from culture.

• Cultural Convergence: Merging of cultures.

3.7: Diffusion of Religion and Language

• Language Families: Based on common origins.

• Religion: Universalizing vs. Ethnic.

3.8: Assimilation, Acculturation, and Multiculturalism

• Assimilation: Becoming part of a larger society.

• Acculturation: Modified culture.

4.1: Introduction to Political Geography

• State: Permanent population, borders, sovereignty.

• Sovereignty: Ultimate authority.

4.2: Devolution, Colonialism, Imperialism, and Globalization

• Colonialism: Territory acquisition & control.

• Imperialism: Influence without settlements.

4.3: Neocolonialism is Shaping the World

• Neocolonialism: Developed nations influence developing ones.

4.4: Types of Political Boundaries

• Boundary Types: Geometric, antecedent, relic, superimposed, subsequent.

4.5: Political Boundary Disputes and Law of the Sea

• Types: Definitional, locational, operational.

4.9: Challenges to Sovereignty and Supranational Organizations

• Supranational organizations limit sovereignty (e.g., UN, EU).

4.10: Political Centrifugal & Centripetal Forces

• Centrifugal: Division factors.

• Centripetal: Unity factors.

5.1: Intensive & Extensive Agricultural Practices

• Climates and crops define agricultural practices.

5.2: Settlement Patterns & Survey Methods

• Settlement Patterns: Nucleated vs. dispersed.

5.3: The Second Agricultural Revolution

• 19th-century advances coincide with industry.

5.4: How the Green Revolution Changed the World

• Pros: Increased food production.

• Cons: Family farms decline.

5.6: Commercial vs. Subsistence Agriculture

• Commercial: Profit-oriented.

• Subsistence: Family/community provision.

5.7: Agricultural Commodity Chains & Economies of Scale

• Commodity Chains: Production processes.

• Economies of Scale: Cost reductions through growth