PERIOD ONE (1491-1607)

North American regions/native societies and their environments

Southwest: Farmers (maize); advanced irrigation systems; small urban centers made of hardened clay bricks-Pueblo, Anasazi

Great Basin/Plains: Nomadic hunter/gatherers (buffalo); small egalitarian kinship bands- Ute

Pacific Coast: Permanent villages of almost 1,000 people; abundance of fish, small game, and plant life; coastal trade- Chumash in CA, Chinook in Pacific Northwest

Northeast: Farmers; villages with longhouses; abundant resources (timber, furs, fish)- Iroquois

Mississippi River: Farmers because of rich soil; river-based trade- Cahokia with strong, centralized government

Old World context that prompted and allowed for European exploration

• European countries were changing and developing strong, centralized states

• The growing upper class valued luxuries from Asia (China, India)

• Muslims controlled Asia, making trade difficult

• This led Europeans to seek new waterways for trade

• Portugal had established trading post in Africa and India and used new maritime technology/shipbuilding

• The reconquista and unification of Soace

Primary objectives of Spanish exploration and colonialism

• Spread Catholic Christianity

• New economic opportunities in Asian markets

• Evolved into extracting resources (gold/silver/tobacco/sugar) from the land

Columbia Exchange’s effect on the Old and New Worlds

• Brought the two hemispheres together

• New foods, animals, and plants were transferred back and forth over the atlantic (tomatoes, potatoes, maize, turkeys from Americas and wheat, rice, soybeans, cows, horses, pigs from Europe)

• People colonized the New World

• Transfer of disease

• Europeans brought smallpox to the Americas, natives had no immunity, so many natives dies, diminishing many native populations

• crops and animals transferred resulted in huge population increase in Europe

How the Spanish established and maintained their new colonies

• Introduced the encomienda system

• Imported slaves from Africa into Spanish colonies

• Introduced the caste system (Peninsulares, Criollos, Mestizos, Indios, Mulattoes, Zambos, Negros and many more…)

• Royally appointed colonial governors

The role religion played in Spanish colonial society

• Incentivized and forced conversion of Native Americans

• Used to support both further subjugation of Native Americans as well as better treatment

• Used to justify slavery in some cases

The development of African-based chattel slavery in the New World

• Native Americans more familiar with environment, dying from disease/overwork

• Africans unfamiliar with Americas, slave trade inexpensive and already flourishing

Vocabulary

Ferdinand & Isabella/Reconquista: the Catholic Monarchs of Spain who sponsored Christopher Columbus' voyage to the Americas in 1492. They united Spain, completed the Reconquista, and established the Spanish Inquisition. Ferdinand was King of Aragon, and Isabella was Queen of Castile.

Christopher Columbus: Italian explorer who completed four voyages across the Atlantic Ocean, opening the way for widespread European exploration and the eventual conquest of the Americas. He is often credited with discovering the "New World" in 1492, although there were already indigenous peoples living there.

Protestant Reformation: 16th-century religious movement led by figures like Martin Luther, John Calvin, and others. It aimed to reform the Catholic Church and led to the creation of Protestant denominations. Key aspects include challenging church practices, emphasizing faith over rituals, and translating the Bible into vernacular languages.

Prince Henry the Navigator: Portuguese prince known for his patronage of exploration and maritime navigation. Prince Henry founded a navigation school and sponsored numerous expeditions along the West African coast, contributing to Portugal's early dominance in global exploration and trade. His efforts helped establish trade routes and lay the groundwork for European exploration of the Americas.

Treaty of Tordesillas: a pivotal agreement between Spain and Portugal brokered by Pope Alexander VI. It aimed to resolve conflicts over newly discovered lands during the Age of Exploration. The treaty established a line of demarcation, located 370 leagues west of the Cape Verde Islands, dividing the unexplored world into separate spheres of influence for Spain and Portugal. Spain gained rights to explore and colonize lands to the west of the line, while Portugal gained rights to lands to the east.

capitalism: an economic system characterized by private ownership of the means of production, market competition, and the pursuit of profit.

joint-stock company: a business entity in which multiple investors pool their capital to finance commercial ventures. Each investor owns shares of the company's stock, and profits and losses are distributed among them according to their shareholding. Joint stock companies played a crucial role in the early European colonization of the Americas, as they provided a means for investors to fund expensive and risky expeditions.

Middle Passage: the middle leg of the triangular trade route between Europe, Africa, and the Americas during the colonial period. Specifically, it was the journey across the Atlantic Ocean that transported enslaved Africans from Africa to the Americas to be sold as laborers on plantations.

Bartolomé de Las Casas: Spanish Dominican friar, historian, and social reformer who is known for his advocacy on behalf of Native Americans and his opposition to their mistreatment and exploitation by Spanish colonizers in the Americas.

Juan Ginés de Sepúlveda: Spanish philosopher and theologian who is known for his defense of Spanish colonization and his views on the treatment of indigenous peoples in the Americas. Sepúlveda's ideas contrasted sharply with those of Bartolomé de Las Casas. Sepúlveda believed in the concept of the "just war," arguing that Spanish conquest and colonization of the Americas were justified because they brought Christianity and civilization to the indigenous populations. He believed that indigenous peoples were inferior to Europeans and argued that they needed to be subjugated and converted to Christianity for their own benefit.

PERIOD TWO (1607-1754)

Comparison of European Colonialism

Spanish

• Goals: conquest, extract wealth, spread Christianity

• Economic Activities: sugar, tobacco, coffee; gold, silver

• Relations with Native Americans: Encomienda and caste systems

French

• Goals: extract wealth, trade, spread Christianity

• Economic Activities: fur, fish

• Relations with Native Americans: intermarriage to secure trade relationships

Dutch

• Goals: trade

• Economic Activities: shipping, fur, finance/banking

• Relations with Native Americans: minimal interaction

English

• Goals: extract wealth, new territory, religious freedom, and improved living conditions

• Economic Activities: joint-stock companies funded colonies; tobacco, timber, furs

• Relations with Native Americans: friendly/reliant at first; tension over land → wars

Comparison of Colonial Regions

Chesapeake

• Economic Activities: tobacco plantations

• System of Government: royal charter, House of Burgesses

• Religious and Social Makeup: wealthy planters, indentured servants, enslaved Africans, Anglican, Catholic

New England

• Economic Activities: subsistence farming, fishing, timber, shipbuilding

• System of Government: Mayflower Compact, self governance, town hall meetings

• Religious and Social Makeup: Puritan/Congregationalist, family-oriented

Caribbean/Carolinas

• Economic Activities: tobacco, sugarcane, rice, indigo

• System of Government: proprietary charters

• Religious and Social Makeup: Anglican, landed gentry, enslaved Africans

Middle Colonies

• Economic Activities: wheat, barley, corn

• System of Government: proprietary charters

• Religious and Social Makeup: Pennsylvania founded by Quakers but religiously tolerant, diverse society, enslaved Africans

The transition from indentured servitude to African-based chattel slavery

• profitability of cash crips created a growing demand for labor

• indentured servitude proved inefficient and problematic with regard to colonial slavery

• the growing slave trade from African to the Caribbean was convenient and inexpensive

The development of political thought in the British North American colonies

• Enlightenment thought from Europe influenced colonial thinking

• natural rights and the social contract theory exposed concerns regarding the monarchy and lack of representation in Parliament

• Enlightenment thinking also affected religious thought , indirectly prompting the revival of religious fervor

• new notions of rejecting religious and political authority struck a chord in the colonies

Vocabulary

corporate colonies: operated by joint-stock companies, at least during these colonies’ early years; ex) Jamestown

royal colonies: under the direct authority and rule of the king’s government; ex) Virginia after 1624

proprietary colonies: under the authority of individuals granted charters of ownership by the king; ex) Maryland and Pennsylvania

Jamestown, 1607: the first permanent English colony in America

Captain John Smith:

headright system: to recruit White settlers. Virginia provided 50 acres of land, called a headright, to any settler to the colony

Plymouth Colony/Separatists (Pilgrims): a religious group who sought to separate from the Church of England due to their beliefs. they arrived on the Mayflower and established the colony in what is now Massachusetts

Massachusetts Bay Colony/Puritans: sought religious freedom and established a theocratic society governed by strict Puritan beliefs and practices

John Winthrop: Massachusetts Bay Colony’s first governor. Winthrop is remembered for his leadership, particularly his famous sermon "A Model of Christian Charity," in which he articulated the vision of the colony as a "city upon a hill," emphasizing the Puritan belief in building a society based on moral and religious principles

Great Migration: the movement of English Puritans to the Massachusetts Bay Colony during the 1630s. These migrants sought religious freedom and economic opportunities in the New World

Cecil Calvert (Lord Baltimore): the founder of the Maryland colony in the early 17th century. He established Maryland as a haven for English Catholics seeking religious freedom. Lord Baltimore's efforts led to the drafting of the Maryland Toleration Act in 1649, which granted religious freedom to all Christians in the colony, making Maryland one of the first places in the New World to offer such religious tolerance

Maryland Act of Toleration: law enacted in the Maryland colony to promote religious tolerance. It granted freedom of worship to all Christians and was one of the earliest examples of religious tolerance in the American colonies. The act was influenced by the desire to attract settlers of different religious beliefs to Maryland and was issued under the leadership of Lord Baltimore, who sought to create a refuge for Catholics in the New World

Roger Williams: Puritan minister and theologian who founded the colony of Rhode Island in the early 17th century. He advocated for the separation of church and state, as well as religious freedom for all individuals. Williams clashed with the Puritan authorities in Massachusetts Bay Colony over these beliefs and was eventually banished. He established Rhode Island as a refuge for those seeking religious freedom and tolerance, making it one of the earliest examples of religious liberty in America

Anne Hutchinson: Puritan woman who held religious meetings in her home in Massachusetts Bay Colony, where she expressed dissenting views on Puritan doctrine and the role of women in religious leadership. Hutchinson's teachings challenged the authority of the Puritan clergy and sparked controversy within the colony. She was eventually put on trial and banished from Massachusetts in 1638. Hutchinson later settled in Rhode Island and then New Netherland (modern-day New York), where she was killed in a Native American attack in 1643

halfway covenant: religious and political compromise adopted by some Congregational churches in New England during the late 17th century. It allowed for the partial membership of individuals who had not experienced a conversion experience but were still considered morally upright. This meant that they could have their children baptized and participate in some church activities, though they couldn't partake in the Lord's Supper or hold full membership rights. The Halfway Covenant was a response to declining religious fervor and a way to maintain church membership and social cohesion in the face of changing demographics and religious attitudes in colonial New England

William Penn: English Quaker leader and founder of the colony of Pennsylvania in the late 17th century. He obtained a land grant from King Charles II as payment for a debt owed to his father. Penn envisioned Pennsylvania as a haven for Quakers and other persecuted religious groups, as well as a place of religious tolerance and democratic governance. He implemented liberal policies, such as religious freedom and fair treatment of Native Americans, in the colony

Quakers: religious group that emerged in England during the 17th century. They emphasized direct experience of God, inner light, and the equality of all individuals. Quakers faced persecution in England and sought refuge in the American colonies, particularly in Pennsylvania, which was founded by William Penn as a haven for religious freedom. Quakers played significant roles in early American history, advocating for pacifism, abolitionism, and social justice

James Oglethorpe/Georgia: British general and philanthropist who founded the colony of Georgia in the early 18th century. Georgia was established as a haven for debtors and the "worthy poor," providing them with a fresh start and an opportunity for economic and social advancement. Oglethorpe's vision for Georgia also included creating a buffer between the British colonies and Spanish Florida, as well as providing a place for religious refugees, such as persecuted Protestants

Virginia House of Burgesses: the first representative legislative assembly in the American colonies. Established in 1619 in the colony of Virginia, it allowed landholding male settlers to elect representatives who would make laws and levy taxes for the colony

Mayflower Compact: a legal agreement signed by the Pilgrims aboard the Mayflower ship in 1620 before they landed at Plymouth Colony. It established a form of self-government and set forth principles of majority rule and social contract

triangular trade: system of trade during the colonial era that involved three main trading routes between Europe, Africa, and the Americas. Goods, including raw materials, manufactured products, and enslaved Africans, were exchanged among the three regions. European ships carried manufactured goods to Africa, where they were traded for enslaved people. The enslaved Africans were then transported to the Americas and sold to plantation owners. Finally, American colonial products, such as sugar, tobacco, and cotton, were shipped back to Europe

mercantilism: economic theory and policy that dominated European economic thought during the colonial period. It emphasized the idea that a nation's wealth and power were measured by its accumulation of precious metals, particularly gold and silver. To achieve this, mercantilist policies aimed to increase a country's exports while limiting imports through measures such as tariffs, subsidies, and the establishment of colonial monopolies. Colonies were seen as sources of raw materials and markets for finished goods, serving the economic interests of the mother country

Navigation Acts: series of laws enacted by the British Parliament in the 17th and 18th centuries aimed at regulating colonial trade and increasing the wealth and power of England. These acts required that certain colonial goods could only be exported to England or other English colonies, and they mandated the use of English ships and crews for colonial trade. The Navigation Acts were intended to ensure that the colonies served as a source of raw materials and a market for English manufactured goods, while also maintaining England's dominance in maritime trade. These acts contributed to tensions between the American colonies and Britain, as colonists often resented the restrictions imposed on their trade and economic activities

salutary neglect: British policy of lax enforcement of colonial trade laws during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. It allowed the American colonies a degree of self-government and economic autonomy, as long as they remained economically beneficial to Britain. Under salutary neglect, British authorities often turned a blind eye to smuggling and other violations of trade regulations, preferring to focus on more pressing matters at home. This policy contributed to the development of a sense of independence and self-reliance among the American colonists, but it eventually ended as Britain sought to exert more control over its colonies

Dominion of New England: colonial administrative union created by King James II in 1686. It combined the New England colonies, along with New York and New Jersey, under a single royal governor appointed by the king. The goal was to increase royal control over the colonies and enforce the Navigation Acts more effectively

Glorious Revolution: political revolution that took place in England in 1688. It resulted in the overthrow of King James II, who was replaced by William III and Mary II, joint rulers known as William and Mary. The revolution was "glorious" because it was relatively bloodless and marked a significant shift in power from the monarchy to Parliament. The Glorious Revolution established the supremacy of Parliament and constitutional monarchy in England

Metacom’s War (King Phillip‘s War): conflict that occurred in New England from 1675 to 1676. It was named after Metacom, also known as King Philip, who was the leader of the Wampanoag tribe. The war was sparked by tensions between Native American tribes and English colonists over land, resources, and cultural differences. Native American tribes, led by Metacom, launched coordinated attacks on English settlements throughout the region. The conflict was extremely brutal and resulted in widespread destruction and loss of life on both sides. Ultimately, the English colonists emerged victorious, but at a significant cost. Metacom's War had lasting effects on relations between Native Americans and colonists, as well as on the expansion of English settlement in New England

Bacon’s Rebellion: significant uprising in colonial Virginia in 1676. It was led by Nathaniel Bacon, a wealthy planter, against the colonial government led by Governor William Berkeley. The rebellion was sparked by a variety of grievances, including high taxes, lack of protection from Native American raids, and resentment towards the political and economic elite who dominated Virginia society. Bacon and his followers, consisting of both poor farmers and indentured servants, demanded greater representation in the government and military action against Native American tribes. Bacon's Rebellion resulted in violence and chaos, including the burning of Jamestown, before it was eventually suppressed by colonial forces

Pueblo Revolt (Pope’s Rebellion): significant uprising of Pueblo Native Americans against Spanish colonizers in present-day New Mexico in 1680. Led by a Pueblo religious leader named Pope, the revolt was a response to decades of Spanish colonization, which included forced labor, cultural suppression, and religious persecution. The Pueblo Revolt was a coordinated effort across multiple Pueblo villages, resulting in the expulsion of Spanish settlers from the region and the destruction of Spanish missions and settlements. The revolt succeeded in driving the Spanish out of New Mexico for nearly a decade, marking one of the few instances of indigenous peoples successfully expelling European colonizers from their territory in North America

indentured servants: individuals who contracted to work for a specified period, typically four to seven years, in exchange for passage to the American colonies, food, clothing, and shelter

First Great Awakening: religious revival movement in the American colonies during the 18th century, characterized by emotional preaching and a focus on personal salvation. It challenged traditional religious authority and emphasized individual spiritual experiences.

Jonathan Edwards: prominent theologian and preacher during the First Great Awakening in colonial America. He is best known for his powerful sermons, such as "Sinners in the Hands of an Angry God," which emphasized the severity of God's judgment and the need for repentance. Edwards played a significant role in shaping the religious landscape of his time and influencing the spread of evangelical Christianity in America.

George Whitefield: prominent figure during the First Great Awakening in colonial America. He was an English Anglican preacher known for his powerful and charismatic style of preaching, drawing large crowds wherever he spoke. Whitefield's itinerant preaching tours throughout the American colonies helped to spread the revival movement and inspire a sense of religious fervor among many colonists. His influence contributed to the growth of evangelical Christianity in America and helped shape the religious landscape of the 18th century.

“Old Lights”: during the First Great Awakening, "Old Lights" referred to conservative or established religious leaders who opposed the revivalist movement. They typically adhered to traditional forms of worship and were skeptical of the emotional and sometimes radical preaching style of the revivalists

“New Lights”: characterized by an emphasis on emotional religious expression and a departure from traditional forms of worship.

Ben Franklin: played a key role in the American Enlightenment and was a leading figure in colonial America, contributing to debates about colonial autonomy, the formation of the United States, and diplomacy during the Revolutionary War

Phillis Wheatley: enslaved African-American poet who gained fame for her poetry during the 18th century. Her work, often addressing themes of religion, freedom, and the abolition of slavery, challenged prevailing racial stereotypes of the time. Wheatley's achievements as a poet highlighted the intellectual capabilities of African Americans and contributed to discussions about race and equality in colonial America

John Peter Zenger: New York newspaper publisher, was arrested and charged with libel for criticizing the colonial governor. His trial, which featured prominent lawyer Andrew Hamilton arguing in his defense, resulted in Zenger's acquittal. The case set a precedent for the protection of freedom of speech and the press, laying the groundwork for these rights in the United States Constitution

(American) Enlightenment: intellectual and philosophical advancements influenced by European Enlightenment ideas. During this time, American thinkers such as Benjamin Franklin, Thomas Jefferson, and Thomas Paine embraced rationalism, scientific inquiry, and individualism. The American Enlightenment played a crucial role in shaping the ideological foundations of the American Revolution, including concepts such as natural rights, liberty, and the social contract, which influenced the formation of the United States government and its founding documents

John Locke/natural rights: English philosopher whose ideas profoundly influenced the founding of the United States. He argued that all individuals are born with natural rights, including life, liberty, and property. These rights are inherent and cannot be taken away by any government

PERIOD THREE (1754-1800)

Effects of the French and Indian War

Albany Plan of Union

• proposed by Benjamin Franklin

• called for a more intercolonial government to more effectively recruit troops and raise taxes for colonial defense

• set a precedent for establishing future colonial congresses

Conflict because of new territory

• colonists began flooding territory beyond the Appalachian Mountains, sparking conflict with Native Americans

• to limit hostilities, settlement west was forbidden

• See: Pontiac’s Rebellion, Proclamation of 1763

Road to Revolution

Economic measures taken by Parliament following the French and Indian War

• enacted revenue-producing taxes to pay off the war debt

• most taxes were placed on imported luxury, paper, and manufactured good

• See: Stamp Act, Tea Act, Quartering Act, etc.

Colonists and colonial governments’ reactions

• organized intercolonial committees, boycotted British goods, destruction of property, violence against British officials

• See: Stamp Act Congress, Continental Congress, homespun movement, Boston Tea Party, tarring and feathering

Enlightenment’s effect on political thought in the colonies

• ideas of natural rights, social contract, and separation of powers all contributed to the desire for independence as patriots saw the British as violating these

• See: John Locke’s Two Treatises of Government, Jean Jacques Rousseau’s Social Contract, and Montesquieu’s “tripartite” system

War for Independence

Division of colonial society during the Revolutionary War

• patriots (proindependence)

• loyalists (loyal to Britain)

• neutral (rural populations removed from fighting)

Turning point of the war

• Battle of Saratoga was a significant turning point as it was a decisive colonial victory that convinced France and Spain to support the colonies against England

• France’s military and economic alliance would ultimately lead to the victory at Yorktown that effectively ended the war

Establishing New Governments

The Articles of Confederation

• consisted of unicameral (one body) legislature (congress) with each state having one equal vote

• won the war, established system for admitting new states to union and set precedent for outlawing slavery

Proposition of new Constitution

• Articles of Confederation were too weak, lacking the power to levy taxes, raise an army, or regulate commerce

Significant topics of debate concerning the new Constitution

• presidency: some feared the position was monarchical while others claimed the need for a strong executive (See: checks and balances, Federalist Papers)

• representation: small states vs large states, i.e. equal vote or based on population (See: New Jersey vs Virginia Plan → Connecticut (Great) Compromise)

• slavery: should slaves count toward a state’s population for representation purposes? (See: Three-Fifths Compromise)

Shaping a New Republic

Federalist vs Anti-Federalists

• Federalists advocated for a strong central government and a loose interpretation of the Constitution

• Anti-Federalists (later Democratic Republicans) wanted a small government limited by a strict interpretation of the Constitution

• See: Hamilton’s National Bank, elastic clause

George Washington’s Farewell Address

• warned against formation of political factions and getting involved in foreign alliances/wars

• See: Federalists v Democratic Republicans, XYZ Affair, Quasi War

Relations with Native Americans

• Indian Trade and Intercourse Act regulated the relationships among settlers and Indians and made provisions for fair dealings

Regional identities with regard to black lives

• slavery existed in most states, North and South, with the South economically relying on it

• free blacks were afforded more economic and political rights in some Northern states

Vocabulary

French and Indian War (Seven Years War): the french began building forts in the ohio river valley in order to stop westward growth of british colonies; the governor of virginia sent a small militia led by george washington to stop the building of fort duquesne and win control of the ohio river valley; the war went badly for the british at first, but the prime minister focused the military strategy on conquering canada; it was accomplished by the retaking of louisbourg, the surrender of quebec, and the taking of montreal

Albany Congress/Albany Plan of Union: recognizing the need for colonial defense, the british government had called for representatives from different colonies to meet in a congress in albany, new york in 1754; the delegates from seven colonies adopted an agreement; developed by benjamin franklin, it provided for an intercolonial government and a system for recruiting troops and collecting taxes from various colonies for their common defense; it never took effect, but set a precedent for later congresses in the 1770s

Benjamin Franklin: developed the albany plan during the french and indian war

Peace (Treaty) of Paris, 1763: after the french and indian war, the european powers negotiated a peace treaty; great britain acquired both french canada and spanish florida; france gave spain its huge territory to the west of the mississippi river known as louisiana; the british expanded their control of north america, and france’s power on the continent virtually ended

Pontiac’s Rebellion: chief pontiac led an attack against colonial settlements along the western frontier; native americans were angered by the growing westward movement of european settlers onto their land and by the british refusal to offer gifts as the french had done; pontiac’s alliance of native americans in the ohio river valley destroyed forts and settlements from new york to virginia; the british sent regular british troops to put down the uprising

Proclamation of 1763: in an effort to stabilize the western frontier, the british government issued a proclamation that prohibited colonists from settling west of the appalachian mountains; the british hoped that limiting settlements would prevent future hostilities between colonists and native americans; the colonists reacted with anger and defiance because colonists hoped to reap the benefits of the seven years’ war in the form of access to western lands; defying the proclomation, colonists streamed westward past the boundary line

virtual representation: all members of parliament represented the interests of the entire empire, not just the small district that chose them

Sugar Act, 1764: placed duties on foreign sugar and certain luxuries; its supporters wanted to regulate the sugar trade and raise revenue; a companion law also provided for stricter enforcement of the navigation acts to stop smuggling; those accused of smuggling were to be tried in admirality courts by crown-appointed judges without juries

Vice Admiralty Courts: the system used by the british to try the colonists who were caught breaking any of the british acts that had been passed in america; they consisted of a judge who was appointed by the british government, and there was no jury

Quartering Act, 1765: required the colonists to provide food and living quarters for british soldiers stationed in the colonies

Stamp Act, 1765: in an effort to raise funds to support british military forces in the colonies, lord grenville turned to a tax long in use in great britain; the act required that revenue stamps be placed on most printed paper in the colonies, including all legal documents, newspapers, pamphlets, or advertisements; this was the first direct tax- collected from those who used the goods- paid by the people in the colonies, as opposed to the taxes on imported goods, which were paid by merchants

Patrick Henry: a young virginia lawyer who stood up in the virginia house of burgesses and demanded that the king’s government recognize the rights of all citizens- including the right not to be taxed without representation

Stamp Act Congress: representatives from nine colonies met in new york in 1765 to form the stamp act congress; they resolved that only their own elected representatives had the legal authority to approve taxes

Sons of Liberty: a secret society organized for the purpose of intimidating tax agents; members of the society sometimes destroyed revenue stamps and tarred and feathered revenue officials

Declaratory Act, 1766: asserted that parliament had the right to tax and make laws for the colonies “in all colonies whatsoever”; this declaration of policy would soon lead to renewed conflict between the colonists and the british government

Townshend Acts, 1767: parliament enacted new duties to be collected on colonial imports of tea, glass, and paper; the revenue would be used to pay crown officials in the colonies, thus making the officials independent of the colonial assemblies that had paid their salaries

writ of assistance: a general license to search anywhere 

John Dickinson: member of the first continental congress (moderate) and writer of “letter from a partner in pennsylvania”

Letters From a Farmer in Pennsylvania: argued that parliament could regulate colonial commerce , but if it wanted to tax colonists, it had to have the approval of assemblies that included colonial representatives

Samuel Adams: co-author of the “massachusetts circular letter”; founder of the sons of liberty; organized committees of correspondence

Boston Massacre (1770): a crowd of colonists harassed the guards near the customs house; the guards fired into the crowd, killing five; among them was crispus attucks, a dockworker of mixed african and native american heritage, who would later become a symbol of the anti-slavery movement; at their trial for murder, the six soldiers were defended by colonial lawyer, john adams; they were acquitted for murder, but two were convicted on the less serious charge of manslaughter; adams’ radical cousin, samuel adams, angrily denounced the shooting incident as a “massacre” and used it to inflame anti-british feeling

Committees of Correspondence: initiated by samuel adams in 1772, in boston and other massachusetts towns, adams began the practice of organizing committees that would regularly exchange letters about suspicious or potentially threatening british activities; the virginia house of burgesses took the concept a step further when it organized intercolonial committees in 1773

Tea Act, 1773: hoping to help the british east india company out of its financial problems, parliament passed the tea act, which made the price of the company’s tea—even with the tax included—cheaper than that of smuggled dutch tea

Boston Tea Party (1773): a shipment of east india company tea arrived in boston harbor but found no buyers; before the royal governor could bring the tea ashore, a group of bostonians, mostly artisans and laborers, took action; disguised as native americans, they boarded the british ships and dumped 342 chests of tea into the harbor; colonial action to this incident was mixed

Coercive Acts, 1774 (Intolerable Acts): there were four coercive acts, directed mainly at punishing the people of boston and massachusetts and bringing them under control; the port act closed the port of boston; prohibiting trade in and out of the harbor until all the destroyed tea was paid for; the massachusetts government act reduced the power of the massachusetts legislature while increasing the power of the royal governor; the administration of justice act allowed royal officials accused of crimes to be tried in great britain instead of in the colonies; the quartering act was expanded to enable british troops to be quartered in private homes; it applied to all colonies

Quebec Act, 1774: when it passed the coercive acts, the british government also passed a law organizing the canadian lands gained from france; to satisfy the french-speaking canadians, the act established roman catholicism as the official religion of quebec; it also set up a government without a representative assembly and extended quebec’s boundary to the ohio river; this plan, accepted by the french canadians, was resented by the 13 colonies

Deism: enlightenment thinkers that believed in god, but in one who had established natural laws in creating the universe and then rarely or never intervened directly in human affairs; god set the rules but then allowed people to make choices; this view contrasted with the belief held by most christians of their time that god regularly intervened in everyday life, often to reward or punish individuals or groups for their actions

Thomas Paine: author of the pamphlet, “common sense”

“Common Sense”: pamphlet written by thomas paine who argued in clear and forceful language that the colonies should become independent states and break all political ties with the british monarchy; paine argued that it was contrary to common sense for a large continent to be ruled by a small and distant island and for people to pledge allegiance to a king whose government was corrupt and whose laws were unreasonable

1st Continental Congress: the intolerable acts drove all the colonies except georgia to send delegates to a convention in philadelphia in september 1774; the purpose of the convention was to respond to what the delegates viewed as britain’s alarming threats to their liberties; those attending the congress were outwardly similar: all were wealthy white men; but they held diverse views about the crisis, from radical to conservative; leading the radicals—those demanding the greatest concessions from britain—were patrick henry of virginia and samuel adams and john adams of massachusetts; the moderates included george washington of virginia and john dickinson of pennsylvania; the conservative delegates—those who favored a mild statement of protest—included john jay of new york and joseph galloway of pennsylvania; unrepresented were the loyalists, the colonists who would not challenge the king’s government in any way

Battle of Lexington and Concord: on april 18, 1775, general thomas gage, the commander of british troops in boston, sent a large force to seize colonial military supplies in the town of concord; warned of the british march by two riders, paul revere and william dawes, the militia (minutemen) of lexington assembled on the village green to face the british; the americans were forced to retreat under heavy british fire with eight killed in the brief encounter; it is unknown as to who fired the first shot; continuing their march, the british entered concord destroyed some military supplies; marching back to boston, the long column of british soldiers was attacked by hundreds of militiamen firing from behind stone walls; the british suffered 250 casualties–and also some humiliation at being so badly mauled by “amateur” fighters

Declaration of Independence: after meeting for more than a year, the congress gradually and somewhat reluctantly began to favor independence rather than reconciliation; on june 7, 1776; richard henry lee of virginia introduced a resolution declaring the colonies to be independent; five delegates including thomas jefferson, formed a committee to write a statement in support of lee’s resolution; the declaration drafted by jefferson listed specific grievances against george iii’s government and also expressed the basic principles that justified revolution

Loyalists (American Tories):

Patriots:

Battle of Saratoga:

Treaty of Alliance with France, 1778:

Treaty of Paris, 1783:

Daughters of Liberty:

Republican Motherhood:

Haitian Revolution:

Articles of Confederation:

Land Ordinance/Northwest Ordinance/Northwest Territory:

Shays’ Rebellion:

Constitutional Convention:

Virginia Plan:

New Jersey Plan:

Great Compromise (Connecticut Plan)

Three-Fifths Compromise:

Slave Trade Compromise:

Federalists (faction):

Anti-Federalists (faction):

Federalist Papers:

James Madison:

federalism:

separation of powers:

Bill of Rights:

George Washington:

Judiciary Act of 1789:

Alexander Hamilton/five point financial plan:

Report on Public Credit, 1790:

Report on a National Bank, 1790:

Report on Manufactures, 1791:

French Revolution:

Proclamation of Neutrality, 1793:

Jay’s Treaty with Great Britain, 1794:

Pinckney’s Treaty with Spain, 1795:

Whiskey Rebellion (1794):

Federalists (political party):

Democratic-Republicans:

Thomas Jefferson:

loose construction (interpretation):

strict construction (interpretation):

Washington’s Farewell Address:

John Adams:

XYZ Affair:

Alien & Sedition Acts, 1798:

Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions, 1798:

PERIOD FOUR (1800-1848)

The Jefferson Administration

Loose Constructionism vs Strict Constructionism

• Loose constructionism allows for more expansive governmental power by way of the elastic clause (See: Federalists)

• Strict Constructionism attempts to limit governmental authority by interpreting the Constitution more narrowly (See: Democratic Republicans)

The Barbary Wars

• series of wars with the Barbary states of North Africa which were precipitated by Barbary demands for tribute payments from U.S. trade vessels

• George Washington and John Adams both agreed to pay the tributes, but Thomas Jefferson thought it a slight on American honor and thus refused to pay

Louisiana Purchase

• this land acquisition (purchased from France) west of the Mississippi River doubled the territory of the United States

• it was controversial because James Monroe was authorized to purchase parts of New Orleans, but when Napoleon offered the entire territory, Monroe accepted without presidential or congressional approval

• additionally, being a strict constructionist, Jefferson could find no constitutional provision for the president purchasing land, so it became an example of a violation of Jefferson’s strict constructionism

Marbury v. Madison

• expanded the power of the Supreme Court by setting a precedent for judicial review

• massive check on the legislative and executive branches

The Early Republic

Causes and Effects of the War of 1812

• Causes: American suspicion of the British inciting Native American attacks on settlers; British policy of impressment

• Effects: intense nationalism, Federalist opposition to war and calls for secession led to a decline in significance for the party and political dominance for the Democratic-Republicans

The American System

• Henry Clay’s plan for uniting the national economy

• 3 parts: protective tariffs, second national bank, and government funded roads, railroads, and canals

The Missouri Compromise

• a new rule for future admission of slave and free states using the 36 30 line

• Missouri admitted as a slave stare and Maine a free stare in order to maintain a balance in the Senate

The Monroe Doctrine

• foreign policy declaration that warned European states against further encroachment into or influence in the Americas

The Market Revolution

What was the Market Revolution?

• linking of northern industries with western and southern farms, which was created by advances in agriculture, industry, communication, and transportation

New technologies

• contributed to economic growth

• cotton gin, spinning machine, interchangeable parts, steamboats, trains

Market Revolution’s effect on society and immigration

• increased wealth inequality, influx of immigration (especially to eastern cities), growing middle class, women working in factories (to a degree) but still limited by cult of domesticity

• 2 million immigrants from 1820-1840, mostly Irish/German

Age of Jackson

The “corrupt bargain”

• the contentious election of 1824, ended without a clear electoral winner and decided by the House, of which Henry Clay presided over

• Andrew Jackson was snubbed, despite being the most popular candidate

Rearrangement of political parties because of Election of 1824

• Democratic-Republicans split into Whigs and Democrats, led by Henry Clay and Andrew Jackson, respectively

South Carolina threatens secession

• Tariff of Abominations (1828)

• South Carolina claimed it was unconstitutional but Jackson threatened to send troops down

Native Americans

• they were removed to the new “Indian Territory” through the violation of past treaties and Supreme Court rulings

• See: Indian Removal Act, Worcester v Georgia, Trail of Tears

Social Movements

Transcendentalism

• philosophical movement that embraced man’s relationship with nature and human perfectibility

• See: Ralph Waldo Emerson, Henry David Thoreau, Brook Farm

Utopian communities

• new societies founded by religious and/or reform-minded people who were influenced by European intellectuals and ideals of American democracy and equality

• See: Oneida Community, Mormonism

The Second Great Awakening

• democratizing revival of religious enthusiasm, affording regional Protestant identities

Different social movements

• temperance: against consumption of alcohol

• abolitionism: end institution of slavery

• women’s rights: education equality, marriage rights, and suffrage

• See: Seneca Falls, Declaration of Sentiments, Asylum Movement, Dorothea Dix, public education, Horace Munn

Vocabulary

Election of 1800/“Revolution of 1800”: The presidential election of 1800 provided for the first election with a clear choice between political parties. In 1800, a majority of the presidential electors cast their ballots for two Democratic-Republicans: one for Thomas Jefferson and one for Aaron Burr. The two tied for the presidency. The House voted to choose the winner, they debated and voted for days until they finally gave a majority to Jefferson. Democratic-Republican lawmakers elected in 1800 took control of both the House and the Senate in the elections. So the Federalists had been swept from power in both the executive and legislative branches of the government.

Louisiana Purchase: The vast western lands known as the Louisiana Territory encompassed a large tract of western land through which the Mississippi and Missouri Rivers flowed, land little explored by Europeans. At the mouth of the Mississippi lay the territory’s most valuable property in terms of commerce– the port of New Orleans. The Louisiana Territory had once been claimed by France, which then lost its claim to Spain. But in 1800, the French military and political leader Napoleon Bonaparte secretly forced Spain to give the Louisiana Territory back to France. Napoleon hoped to restore the French empire in the Americas. To raise money for resources, Napoleon sold the Louisiana Territory to America for $15 million. The Louisiana Purchase doubled the size of the United States, removed a European presence from the nation’s borders, and extended the western frontier to lands beyond the Mississippi.

Aaron Burr: Jefferson’s Democratic-Republican vice president. In 1804 a Democratic-Republican caucus decided not to nominate Aaron Burr for a second term as vice president. Burr then embarked on a series of ventures, one of which threatened to break up the Union and another of which resulted in the death of Alexander Hamilton.

Barbary Pirates: The first major challenge to Jefferson’s foreign policy came not from a major European power but from the piracy practiced by the Barbary pirates, Presidents Washington and Adams had reluctantly agreed to pay tribute to the Barbary governments. The ruler of Tripoli demanded a higher sum in tribute from Jefferson. Refusing to pay, Jefferson sent a small fleet of the U.S. Navy to the Mediterranean. Sporadic fighting with Tripoli lasted for four years.

Chesapeake-Leopard Affair: One incident at sea especially aroused American anger and almost led to war. In 1807, only a few miles off the coast of Virginia, the British warship Leopard fired on the U.S. warship Chesapeake. Three Americans were killed, and four others were taken captive and impressed into the British navy. Anti-British feelings ran high, and many Americans demanded war. Jefferson, however, resorted to diplomacy and economic pressure as his response to the crisis.

Embargo Act of 1807: The measure prohibited American merchant ships from sailing to any foreign port. Since the United States was Britain’s largest trading partner, Jefferson hoped that the British would stop violating the rights of neutral nations rather than lose U.S. trade. The embargo’s effect on the U.S. economy was devastating, especially for the merchant marine and shipbuilders of New England. Jefferson called for the repeal in 1809.

Tecumseh:

Battle of Teppecanoe:

William Henry Harrison:

War Hawks: A congressional election in 1810 had brought a group of new, young Democratic-Republicans to Congress, many of them from frontier states (Kentucky, Tennessee, and Ohio). Known as war hawks because of their eagerness for war with Britain, they quickly gained significant influence in the House of Representatives. Led by Henry Clay of Kentucky and John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, the war hawk members of Congress argued that war with Britain would be the only way to defend American honor, gain Canada, and destroy American Indian resistance on the frontier.

War of 1812: From the U.S. point of view, the pressures leading to war came from two directions: the continued violation of U.S. neutral rights at sea and troubles with the British western frontier. 

Battle of Horseshoe Bend: In March 1814, in present-day Alabama, Jackson ended the power of an important British ally, the Creek Nation. The victory eliminated the Indians and opened new lands to White settlers. A British effort to control the Mississippi River was halted at New Orleans by Jackson leading a force of frontier soldiers, free African Americans, and Creoles. The victory was impressive– but also meaningless.

Treaty of Ghent: American peace commissioners traveled to Ghent, Belgium, to discuss terms of peace with British diplomats. On Christmas Eve 1814, an agreement was reached. The terms halted the fighting, returned all conquered territory to the prewar claimant, and recognized the prewar boundary between Canada and the United States. The treaty was ratified by the Senate in 1815 and said nothing at all about the grievances that led to war. Britain made no concessions concerning impressment, blockades, or other maritime differences. Thus, the war ended in a stalemate with no gain for either side.

Battle of New Orleans: The battle was fought on January 8, 1815, two weeks after a treaty had been signed in Ghent, Belgium, but before news of the treaty had reached military forces.

Hartford Convention: Just before the war ended, the New England states threatened to secede from the Union. Bitterly opposed to both the war and the Democratic-Republican government in Washington, radical Federalists in New England urged that the Constitution be amended and that, as a last resort, secession be voted upon. To consider these matters, a special convention was held at Hartford, Connecticut, in December 1814. Delegates from New England states rejected the radical calls for a secession. But to limit the growing power of the Democratic-Republicans in the South and West, they adopted several proposals. One of them called for a two-thirds vote of both houses for any future declaration of war. Shortly after the convention dissolved, news came of both Jackson’s victory at New Orleans and the Treaty of Ghent. These events ended criticism of the war and further weakened the Federalists by stamping them as unpatriotic.

Era of Good Feelings: The period’s nickname suggests the Monroe years were marked by a spirit of nationalism, optimism, and goodwill. In some ways, they were. One party, the Federalists, faded into oblivion, and Monroe’s party, the Democratic-Republicans, adopted some of their policies and dominated politics. This perception of unity and harmony, however, can be misleading and oversimplified. Throughout the era, people had heated debates over tariffs, the national bank, internal improvements, and public land sales. Sectionalist tensions over slavery were increasing. Moreover, even a sense of party unity was illusory since antagonistic factions among Democratic-Republicans would soon split in two. The actual period of “good feelings” may have lasted only from the election of 1816 to the Panic of 1819.

Tariff of 1816/protective tariff: Before the War of 1812, Congress had levied low tariffs on imports as a method for raising government revenue. Then, during the war, manufacturers erected many factories to supply goods that previously had been imported from Britain. Now in peacetime, these American manufacturers feared that British goods would be dumped on American markets and take away much of their business. Congress raised tariffs for the express purpose of protecting U.S. manufacturers from competition rather than simply raising revenue. This was the first protective tariff in U.S. history.

Henry Clay’s American System: Henry Clay of Kentucky proposed a comprehensive method for advancing the nation’s economic growth. His plan consisted of three parts: (1) protective tariffs, (2) a national bank, and (3) internal improvements.

Second Bank of the U.S.:

Panic of 1819:

Missouri Compromise:

Adams-Onis Treaty (Florida Purchase Treaty), 1819: Spain, worried that the United States would seize Florida and preoccupied with troubles in Latin America, decided to get the best possible terms for Florida. By treaty in 1819, Spain turned over all of its possessions in Florida and its claims in the Oregon Territory to the United States. In exchange, the United States agreed to assume $5 million in claims against Spain and give up any U.S. territorial claims to the Spanish province of Texas.

Monroe Doctrine: The Monroe Doctrine was a policy set forth by President James Monroe indicating that further colonization by Europe in the Western Hemisphere would be considered a hostile act. The Monroe Doctrine was a declaration made within Monroe's State of the Union Address in 1823.

John Quincy Adams:

Erie Canal:

Robert Fulton:

(Waltham) Lowell System:

Market Revolution:

Nativists (nativism):

Eli Whitney:

Universal male suffrage:

Spoils system:

Rotation in office:

Corrupt Bargain of 1824:

Andrew Jackson:

Martin Van Buren:

Indian Removal Act, 1830:

Worcester v. Georgia (1832):

Trail of Tears:

“Tariff of Abominations”:

Nullification Crisis:

Daniel Webster:

John C. Calhoun:

Bank veto:

Roger Taney:

Democrats:

Whigs:

Henry Clay:

Specie Circular:

Panic of 1837:

“Log Cabin and Hard Cider” Campaign of 1840:

John Marshall:

Marbury v Madison (1803):

Dartmouth College v Woodward (1819):

McCulloch v Maryland (1819):

Gibbons v Ogden (1821):

Individualism:

Romanticism:

Transcendentalism:

Ralph Waldo Emerson:

Henry David Thoreau:

Brook Farm:

Shakers:

Oneida Community:

Second Great Awakening:

Charles Grandison Finney:

Mormons/Joseph Smith:

temperance/American Temperance Society:

Lyman Beecher:

Dorothea Dix:

Horace Mann:

Separate sphere for women/Cult of Domesticity:

Angelina and Sarah Grimke:

Seneca Falls Convention:

Elizabeth Cady Stanton:

“Declaration of Sentiments”:

American Colonization Society:

William Lloyd Garrison and “The Liberator”:

Frederick Douglass:

Nat Turner Rebellion:

PERIOD FIVE (1844-1877)

Pre-War Expansion

Manifest Destiny

• 19th C. American ideology advocating expansion across the North American continent and justified through perceived superiority of American culture, region, technology, and democracy

Texas becomes independent

• as a Mexican territory, Americans were invited to settle and contribute to Mexico’s economy

• most brought Protestantism and slaves with them, causing tension with Catholic and abolitionist Mexico

• war ensued, resulting in Texan victory

• See: Stephen F. Austin, Sam Houston, Battle of the Alamo, Santa Anna

Addition to the Union during Polk’s presidency

• Texas, Oregon, Mexican Cession (California, Nevada, Utah, and Parts of Arizona, New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming) were all added to the Union

Causes of the Mexican-American War

• dispute over the Texas border (Rio Grande vs Nueces River) that turned violent

Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo

• after swift American victory, Mexico was forced to sell much of their territory in present day United States as well as recognize Rio Grande as southern border of Texas

• See: Mexican Cession

The Gold Rush

• after the 1848 discovery of gold in California, thousands of Americans, Asians, and Mexicans poured into the region

• 1848 population: 14,000

• 1860 population: 400,000

Path to Civil War

Primary stances on slavery in the West

• pro-slavery: southern position that claimed slavery was a Constitutional right

• free-soil: anti-slavery position that aimed to prevent the spread of slavery into the West

• popular sovereignty: leave the decision up to the voters in the territory/state

Debate over slavery

• Compromise of 1850 (4 provisions) and the Kansas-Nebraska Act in 1854

• See: Henry Clay, Fugitive Slave Act, Bleeding Kansas, John Brown

Abolitionism prior to the Civil War

• abolitionists helped slaves escape to freedom in the North and published newspapers and books to spread their ideas

• See: Underground Railroad, Uncle Tom’s Cabin

Dred Scott decision

• argued that slaves were not citizens and therefore not able to sue in federal court

• slaves were considered property and the Constitution explicitly states that no person can be deprived of their property without due process of law

• See: Chief Justice Taney

The Civil War

Causes of the Civil War

• election of anti-slavery Abraham Lincoln in 1860 without any Southern electoral votes led to secession of South Carolina (and others)

• See: Fort Sumter

The Border States

• Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri were part of the Union despite being slave states

Union and Confederate strategies

• Union: take advantage of economic and naval superiority by blockading Southern ports and taking control of Mississippi River

• Confederate: solicit help from Britain and France due to their trade relationship (cotton)

• See: Anaconda Plan

The Emancipation Proclamation

• Lincoln’s executive order stating that all enslaved people in Confederate states were free

• enlarged the purpose of the war form preserving the Union to abolishing slavery, thus preventing abolitionist Britain and France from supporting the South

Turning points battles

• Battle of Vicksburg: Union victory along Mississippi River that successfully cut the Confederacy in half

• Battle of Gettysburg: massive death toll but Union victory stopped Confederate push northward

• See: General Grant, General Lee, Gettysburg Address

End of the war

• General Sherman’s use of total war destroyed Confederate morale and resources

• quickly followed by Lee’s surrender to Grant

• See: March to the Sea, Appomattox Courthouse

Reconstruction

Lincoln’s plan for readmitting seceded states

• at least 10% of the population must swear an oath of allegiance to the Union/Constitution and each state must ratify the 13th Amendment (abolish slavery)

• See: Ten Percent Plan

Radical Republicans

• wing of the Republican Party that fought to extend equal civil rights to blacks and establish political and economic punishments for seceded states

Lincoln’s assassination and Johnson’s impeachment’s affect on Reconstruction

• his successor, Andrew Johnson, was a Southern apologist was against affording rights to blacks

• he vetoed most of Congress’ Reconstruction efforts and was ultimately impeached in 1868, allowing Radical Republicans to lead Reconstruction going forward

Reconstruction amendments

• 13th: abolished slavery (except criminal convictions)

• 14th: naturalized citizenship and equal protection

• 15th: universal male suffrage

Continued oppression of blacks after the Civil War

• sharecropping: economic system of tenant farming that still tied poor blacks to the land and white patronage (neo-slavery)

• Ku Klux Klan: white supremacist organization that terrorized blacks in an effort to limit their civil rights

• black codes: laws in Southern states that undermined Reconstruction efforts and relegated blacks to 2nd class citizens (later Jim Crow laws)

End of Reconstruction

• disputed election of 1877 led to a deal between Republicans and Democrats

• Hayes would maintain presidency while federal troops would be removed from Southern states

• See: Compromise of 1877

PERIOD SIX (1865-1898)

Post-Civil War Economic Development

Railroads’ effect on the economy

• growth of government influence through the Civil War led to a fivefold expansion of railroads

• this created an interconnected national economy that stretched from coast to coast

• consumerism also emerged as good produced across the country became more widely available

Panic of 1893’s effect on the railroad industry

• allowed large corporations to take advantage of the economic downturn by consolidating 2/3 of the industry into trusts

The Bessemer Process

• developed in the 1850s, it allowed for the mass production of high quality steel for laying tracks

Andrew Carnegie

• vertical integration saw Carnegie amass mining operations, mills, and distribution methods under the umbrella of one company, thus increasing efficiency and profit

John D. Rockefeller

• horizontal integration saw Rockefeller use anti-competitive and underhanded pricing tactics to hurt rival business after which he would buy them out, assembling a complete takeover of the oil industry and market

Laissez-faire

• the government takes a “hands off” approach to the economy letting competitive forces in the capitalist environment dictate the market

Social Darwinism

• the application of Charles Darwins’s biological theory to human society and the notion of “survival of the the fittest”, by which those factors in power (predominantly Anglo-American capitalists) justified their status with racist and nativist overtones

Gospel of Wealth

• Andrew Carnegie’s philosophy on how to wield one’s wealth as good a Christian

• Carnegie personally justified his immense wealth by investing in society through large philanthropic donation as and projects

Labor in the Gilded Age

Goals and strategies used by labor unions

• workers unionized in order to improve their wages and working condition

• to do so, unions used strikes as means of leveraging their significant numbers

• these strikes were often dealt with harshly by private security hired by the company, and even by soldiers sent in by the federal government

• See: Great Railroad Strike of 1877, Eugene V. Debs, Pullman Strike

Haymarket Square Riot’s effect on the labor movement

• after the anarchist bombing during a large protest in Chicago, many Americans began associating unions with radical and violent ideologies

• this allowed companies to crack down more stringently on union agitation

• See: Knights of Labor

American Federation of Labor

• successor to the Knights of Labor as the largest union in the country

• it was an association of craft unions with over a million members

• See: Samuel Gompers

Immigration to the East

• mostly Northern European (Ireland, Germany, Scandinavia) until the late 19th century when immigration from Eastern and Southern Europe increased

• See: “Old” and “New Immigrants”

Labor unions and immigration

• nativist backlash, perceiving desperate immigrants as a competitive threat in the workforce since they are largely unskilled and willing to work for meager wages

• See: American Protective Association

Chinese Exclusion Act

• prompted by lobbying from nativist and labor groups, this 1882 law banned immigration from China

• it was the first immigration law to target a specific nationality

Westward Expansion

Homestead Act of 1862

• federal law incentivizing settlement by white Americans (and immigrants) of the Midwest and Great Plains regions

Reservation system

• government policy of assigning specific territories or tracts of land to individual tribes

• See: Ulysses S. Grant, Indian Appropriation Act

Native American response to new federal policies

• many tribes, such as the Sioux and Comanche, took up arms against settlers and soldiers, leading to full scale war

• religious movements also emerged as an alternative to violent conflict, especially once it was apparent that victory could not be achieved through war

• See: Sioux Wars, Ghost Dance Movement

Dawes Act of 1877

• Senator Dawes argued against the violent suppression of Indian resistance in favor of forced assimilation, believing it to be beneficial to Native Americans

• this law aimed to force Native Americans onto individual, rather than communal, properties similar to the Homestead Acts

National Grange Movement

• Grangers were organized farmers who eventually acquired enough political power to lobby for regulations and reform of railroads

• railroad companies exploited farmers through unfair shipping rates and competition for land

• See: Patrons of Husbandry, Interstate Commerce Act, Interstate Commerce Commission

Society and Reform in the Gilded Age

Political machines

• urban centers of power based on networks of political and economic loyalty

• corruption permeated urban politics due to the activity of political machines

• See: Tammany Hall in NYC

Problems and solutions of the working class in urban areas

• tenement life, limited education opportunities, unsanitary conditions, etc.

• settlement houses popped up throughout the cities in the North and Midwest

• these offered social services to predominantly immigrant working class communities

• See: Jane Addams’ Hull House

Role of women in reform movements

• women continued to fight for voting rights on a larger, national scale

• the women-led temperance movement also saw increased support

• See: National American Women Suffrage Association, Women’s Christian Temperance Union, Anti-Saloon League, Carrie Nation and “hatchetations”

Social Gospel

• middle class progressive Christians advocated for social justice through assistance and reforms in urban communities as part of their Christian duty

The “New South” and Race in the Gilded Age

The “New South”

• a vision for the post Civil War South based on economic diversity, industrial growth, and laissez-faire capitalism

• this led to industrial growth in Southern cities, Southern states surpassing New England textile manufacturing, and population growth

• still, the South relied on agricultural production through sharecropping

• See: Henry Grady

Increased oppression of blacks in the South

• the Supreme Court case of Plessy v Ferguson made segregation legal, thus officially relegating blacks to second class status

• Jim Crow Laws codified this segregation with a system of economic and political oppression, especially in the South

• See: “separate but equal”, 14th Amendment

Black activists’ response to post Civil War developments

• journalistic efforts by muckrakers attempted to bring awareness of lynchings and racism to the general public

• some blacks sought refuge by moving to Africa

• key leaders in the continued fight for civil rights emerged, as well, calling for black self-sufficiency and legal protections of the rights of black peoples

• See: Ida B. Wells, International Migration Society, Booker T. Washington, W.E.B. DuBois, NAACP

Politics in the Gilded Age

Progressives’ response to patronage

• patronage refers to the practice of winning elections through doling out federal jobs and contracts to loyal supporters

• this seemingly corrupt method of governance was addressed through civil service reform

• See: Pendleton Act

Populist Party

• the Populists called for the direct election of senators, initiative, referendum, and recall as a means of holding officials accountable to the electorate

• they also called for economic return such as the unlimited coinage of silver, a graduated income tax, and numerous labor reform

• See: The People’s Party, Omaha Platform, William Jennings Bryan, “Cross of Gold” Speech

PERIOD SEVEN (1898-1945)

Manifest Destiny to New Imperialism

Turner’s “Frontier Thesis”

• the American identity was forged through westward expansion, revering the self-sufficiency and rugged individualism of the pioneer

• Turner predicted that without the “safety valve” of the frontier, historically alleviating American population centers of certain pressures, cities would become overcrowded and crime/poverty ridden as seen in Europe

American imperialists

• they wanted to expand the American economic reach to foreign markers and through increased access to raw materials

• racial and cultural components, namely white superiority and American exceptionalism, were also significant factors

• See: Social Darwinism, “White Man’s Burden”, Anglo-Saxonism, Josiah Strong, Alfred Thayer Mahan

Anti-imperialists

• criticized that denied a nation’s right to “self-determination”

• it also ran counter to the long standing policy of isolationism

• See: Monroe Doctrine, Washington’s Farewell Address

Primary causes of the Spanish-American War

• Cubans were in a violent struggle for independence from the brutal oppression of Spanish rule

• American newspapers caught the public’s attention, leading to a clamoring for war by war hawks in Congress

• ultimately, the explosion of an American warship in Havana Harbor prompted the US to declare war

• See: yellow journalism, jingoism, “Remember the Maine!”, President McKinley

Primary effects of the Spanish-American War

• Cuban independence from Spain, though under de facto control of American economic imperialism

• the US also acquired numerous island territories in the Caribbean and Pacific

• after the defeat of the Spanish, the US did not grant Filipino independence, sparking continued conflict there

• See: Platt/Teller Amendments, Puerto Rico, Guam, Philippines, Hawaii, Philippine-American War, Emilio Aguinaldo, Insular Cases

Open Door Policy

• with footholds in the Pacific and Asian following victory over Spain, the US diplomatically established trading rights in China, overcoming the European spheres of influence that governed trade in previous decades

• See: Secretary of State John Hay, Boxer Rebellion

US foreign policy under Theodore Roosevelt

• having previously served as Assistant Secretary of the Navy, and volunteered for service in the Spanish-American War, Teddy Roosevelt engaged in aggressive, interventionist foreign policy throughout Latin America

• he justified this using the Monroe Doctrine

• See: Big Stick Diplomacy, Roosevelt Corollary, Panama Canal

Progressive Era

Progressivist issues

• the rising power of big business, uncertainties in the economy, increasingly violent conflict between labor and business interests, the influence of political machines, Jim Crow segregation in the South, and the rights of women

• See: Panic of 1893

Muckrakers

• investigative journalists who attempted to expose corporate corruption, mistreatment of workers and to shed light on the problems ailing poor, urban, and predominantly immigrant communities

• See: Ida Tarbell, Upton Sinclair, Jacob A. Riis

Progressivist political reforms

• secret ballot to limit the influence of political machines, and direct election of senators, initiative, referendum, and recall to hold elected officials accountable

• See: 17th Amendment

Booker T. Washington vs W.E.B. DuBois

• Washington argued that blacks should focus on improving education and economic opportunity within the black community before demanding political equality

• DuBois argued the inverse, claiming political equality would allow blacks to enjoy improved education and economic opportunities

• See: Atlanta Compromise, self-help, accommodation, Niagara Movement, NAACP, “Talented Ten Percent”

Progressive presidents

• Teddy Roosevelt: Square Deal, Pure Food and Drug Act, Meat Inspection Act, Food and Drug Administration (FDA), Forest Reserve Act

• William Taft: “busted” twice as many trusts as Teddy Roosevelt and continued conservationist policies

• Woodrow Wilson: Underwood Tariff, Federal Reserve Act, Clayton Antitrust Act, 18th and 18th Amendments

WWI- Warfare and the Homefront

Primary causes for US military involvement

• unrestricted submarine warfare on the part of Germany and the interception of the Zimmerman Telegram, in which Germany solicited Mexico’s help in exchange for returning the Mexican Cession

• See: Lusitania, Sussex Pledge

Effect of US entry into the war

• it tipped the balance of the conflict in favor of the Allies, especially considering Germany could focus on the Western Front after Soviet Russia withdrew

• See: American Expeditionary Force, General Pershing, Bolshevik Revolution

The Great Migration

• early 20th century of around 1.5 million blacks out of the South

• escaping the oppression of poverty and racial discrimination during the Jim Crow era, they sought jobs in urban centers in the North, Midwest, and West

• See: Exodusters

Government limits free speech

• the government passed laws prohibiting Americans from obtaining information, recording pictures, or copying descriptions of any information relating to the national defense, and from making derisive or disloyal comments about the government and war effort

• See: Espionage Act, Schenck v US, Sedition Act

Treaty of Versailles

• exacted severe punishment on Germany, as France and Britain were intent on limiting the German military and economic expansion

• despite President Wilson‘s leadership role in the negotiations following WWI, the US did nit ratify the treaty

• See: Fourteen Points, League of Nations

First Red Scare

• the rise of anti-communist sentiment after WWI as a result of the Russian Revolution and increased immigration from Eastern Europe

• this resulted in the arrest and mass deportation of over 6000 suspected communists between 1919 and 1920

The 1920s

“Return to Normalcy”

• President Warren Harding’s campaign slogan in 1919

• he called for a rollback of progressive economic regulations in favor of returning to a laissez-faire approach

• See: “Roaring Twenties”

Increased productivity in manufacturing

• the assembly line, which furthered deskilled, or specialized, the labor system to increase efficiency

• See: Henry Ford

Women challenge traditional gender roles

• women broke through into the professional world by taking nursing and teaching jobs in cities, albeit earning less than men

• many women also began openly drinking and smoking, cut their hair short and dressed in waits that didn’t fir the cultural standard for their sex

• See: flappers

Government’s response to increased immigration

• quotas were placed on immigration from countries or regions, especially Eastern and Southern Europe

• this stemmed from nativist sentiments and the continued fear of communist influence

• See: National Origins Act

Literary developments of the 1920s

• the “Lost Generation” was understandably cynical and disillusioned in the post-WWI, which came through in their writing

• the Harlem Renaissance, also called the “New Negro Movement”, saw the blossoming of black intellectualism, art, and literature

• the visibility of this movement reached a national level

• See: F. Scott Fitzgerald, Ernest Hemingway, Ezra Pound, Louis Armstrong, Duke Ellington, Langston Hughes, Claude McKay, Zola Neale Hurston

Radio and motion pictures’ effect on society

• the cross-regional sharing of information, music, and movies led to the emergence of a mass, or popular, culture

• See: Nickelodeons

The Scopes Monkey Trial

• the Scopes trial reflected the broader clash between modernism and religious fundamentalism

• the new media descended upon rural Tennessee as a science teacher was prosecuted for illegally teaching the theory of evolution

• See: Clarence Darrow, William Jennings Bryan

The Great Depression

Causes of the Great Depression

• farmers hurt by overproduction and a decline in global trade, market instability caused by credit, and the eventual stock market crash in 1929

• bank failures in the days immediately following the crash exacerbated the crisis

• See: Black Tuesday, Hoovervilles

The New Deal

• President Franklin Roosevelt’s policy prescription for addressing the Great Depression

• numerous work programs, bank reforms, and generally Keynesian economic policies were enacted to address all-time levels of unemployment and poverty

• See: 3 R’s: relief, recovery, and reform, Public Works Administration, Tennessee Valley Authority, Glass-Steagall Act, FDIC, Social Security Act

Criticisms of the New Deal

• conservatives criticized the New Deal as an extreme overreach of federal power

• the Supreme Court struck down the National Recovery Adminstration

• some liberals criticized the New Deal for not going far enough to help the poor and unemployed

• See: Herbert Hoover, Schecther v US, “Sick Chicken Case”, Huey Long, Father Coughlin

World War II

US involvement before entry into WWII

• the US served as the “arsenal for democracy” as it also had prior entry into WWI

• supplies, food, weapons and ammunition, ships, etc. were shipped to Great Britain and the Soviet Union to aid their fight against the Axis Powers

• See: Cash and Carry, Destroyers for Bases, Lend-Lease Act

US declares war

• the Japanese surprise attack on the naval base at Pearl Harbor in Hawaii drew a swift declaration of war by the US

• the majority of American military action took place in the Pacific Theater for this reason

Treatment of Japanese-Americans during the war

• due to heightened suspicion of espionage, combined with racist rhetoric, Japanese-Americans were subjected to incarceration in internment camps

• homes and jobs were lost and some families were even separated

• See: Executive Order 9066, Korematsu v US

The end of WWII

• in Europe, the D-Day invasion led to an Allied push into Germany, where American and Soviet forces converged on Berlin

• in the Pacific, the success of the island hopping campaign and eventual dropping of two atomic bombs on Japan led to victory

• See: Operation Overlord, Iwo Jima, Hiroshima, Nagasaki

PERIOD EIGHT (1945-1980)

The Cold War

What is a cold war?

• a conflict between two belligerents in which neither engages in open military conflict with the other

• however, tension is so high that war could erupt at any time

Source of the rivalry between US and the Soviet Union

• the US has a democratic government and capitalist economic system while the USSR had a communist system in which the political and economic systems were one in the same

• both countries sought to expand their ideologies globally

US overarching strategy during the Cold War

• containment

• Marxist-Leninism was inherently expansionist, calling for worldwide revolution, which compelled the US to attempt to halt its spread economically, diplomatically, and militarily

• See: Truman Doctrine, Marshall Plan

How democratic/capitalist nations and communist nations aligned themselves

• the notion of collective security on both sides caused like-minded countries to enter into mutual defense pacts

• See: NATO, Warsaw Pact

The arms race

• the advance meant and stockpiling of new weapons, specifically nuclear bombs during this period

• as the US and USSR flaunted their newest weapons through massive tests, both sides came to realize the devastating potential for the planet should war break out

The Korean War

• the ideological conflict between democratic capitalism and communism was not exclusive to the US and USSR

• the Korean peninsula became ideologically divided, as well, and war broke out

• the Soviets and Chinese rallied behind the North and the US and the UN on behalf of the South

• “by proxy”, the Cold War belligerents attempted to further their goals via the Korean conflict

The Second Red Scare

• like the first back in the 1920s, paranoia surrounding the potential for widespread infiltration of communism into the US ran high following WWII

• this paranoia reached the deferral government, as military officials and high profile civilians were accused of connections to the USSR by Senator Joseph McCarthy and the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC)

• See: McCarthyism, Army-McCarthy Hearings

Society and Culture in the 1950s

The GI Bill

• learning from economic woes following WWI, the GI Bill (officially the Servicemen’s Readjustment Act) gave WWII veterans access to a free college education and low-interest home and business loans

Demographic spike and shift after WWII

• the postwar population spike in the US as a result of young men returning from war to a generally prosperous economy

• massive planned communities sprang up in suburban areas across the country, especially in the South and West

• See: baby boom, Levittown suburbanization, Sunbelt

Causes for increased mass culture

• the succession of the radio by the television and the continued growth and pervasiveness of the advertising

• See: consumerism

The Beat Generation

• literary movement that rejected the conformity and capitalism of postwar America through their writing, as well as through their fashion and drug use

• See: Kerouac’s “On the Road”, Beatniks

African American Civil Rights Movement

Brown v Board decision

• segregation justified by Plessy v Ferguson was overturned on the basis of “separate but equal” being “inherently unequal”

• this led to the long arduous process of school integration

Reaction to Brown v Board

• massive resistance was the broad strategy employed by Southern, white-majority state legislatures

• over 100 Southern congressmen publicly rejected the decision, leading to threats of school closures and violence against black students

• See: Southern Manifesto, Little Rock Nine

Examples of civil disobedience used by civil rights activists in the 50s and 60s

• the Montgomery Bus Boycotts, orchestrated by the NAACP and Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. forced local authorities to desegregate busses

• similarly, the sit in movement, led predominantly by black college students, resulted in mass arrests and the eventual desegregation of public spaces

• See: Rosa Parks, SCLC, Greensboro Four, SNCC

March on Washington

• the 1963 highlight of the civil rights movement in which MLK Jr. led 200-300,000 supporters and gave his famous “I Have a Dream” speech from the steps of the Lincoln Memorial

Political success of the civil rights movement in the 1960s

• Presidents John F. Kennedy and Lyndon B. Johnson publicly befriended the civil rights movement

• LBJ signed multiple pieces of legislation, including the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965

Alternative approaches to civil rights from that of MLK

• Malcom X was a very vocal critic of Dr. King’s optimism and nonviolent methods

• he saw white racism as unavoidable, thus the separation of races was the pragmatic way forward

• this sentiment gave rise to more extreme and militant forms of activism as well as increased conflict with police and the federal government

• See: Black Power, Black Panther Party, Black Nationalism, Nation of Islam

The Civil Rights Movement and Protests Expand

Women’s rights movement

• this movement called for legislation protecting the economic and social rights for women

• the Equal Rights Amendment would have been the crowing achievement but conservative backlash prevented it from being ratified

• See: Women’s Liberation, Feminine Mystique, National Organization for Women, Phyllis Schlafly

Other groups’ approach to civil rights

• the support and successes of the African American Civil Rights Movement inspired the Chicano Movement, American Indian Movement, the Gay Liberation Movement, among others to use similar tactics of civil disobedience, nonviolence, and militant activism for gaining protections and equality

• See: César Chávez, Wounded Knee Occupation, Occupation of Alcatraz, Self-Determination Act, Stonewall Riots

Counterculture movement

• predominantly young people who cast off societal restraint with rebellious styles of clothing, and music, along with experimental drug use and free love

• See: Woodstock Festival, Sexual Liberation

How the Supreme Court addressed civil liberties in the 60s

• Baker v Carr established the precedent for legislative reapportionment, or redistricting, subject to court review

• this attempted to balance the representation of rural and suburban white communities with increasingly minority-majority urban communities

• Engel v Vitale further reaffirmed separation of church and state, making mandatory Bible readings and teacher-led prayers in public schools illegal

The Cold War in the 1960s

Fidel Castro and US response to his actions

• the leftist revolutionary who established a communist regime in his native Cuba in 1959

• the US attempted to overthrow his regime through invasion and assassinate him, though both failed

• See: Che Guevara, Bay of Bigs, Cuban Missile Crisis

US actions in the Middle East

• the CIA assisted in the overthrow of a socialist government in Iran amid its efforts to nationalize Iranian oil reserves

Causes of the Vietnam War

• similar to the Korean War, conflict between communist and democratic forces broke put, bringing Russia and China to North Vietnam’s aid and the US to the South’s

• See: domino theory, Ho Chi Minh

Escalation of American involvement in Vietnam

• the Gulf of Tonkin incident, though disputed like the sinking of the USS Maine in Cuba, was used as justification for increasing American troop presence in Vietnam

• See: Gulf of Tonkin Resolution

The outcome of the Vietnam War

• after a decade of military involvement in Vietnam, over 50,000 Americans died which paled in comparison to the upwards of 2 million Vietnamese deaths

• the US withdraw in 1973 amid massive protests throughout the late 1960s and early 70s, having never declared war

The Great Society

What was the Great Society?

• LBJ’s continuation of New Deal era government-led social and economic reforms

• these programs and legislation focused on safety nets for the poor

• See: War on Poverty

Significant Great Society acts of legislation

• Medicare: provided health insurance to people over the age of 65

• Medicaid: provided health insurance to people in low-income situations or with disabilities

• Immigration Act: abolished immigration quotas

Society in Transition

Stagflation

• a recession, or a decline in economic activity, struck in the early 1970s

• this slow economic growth, or stagnation, occurred at the same time as rising prices for goods, or inflation

Watergate Scandal

• the 1972-1974 political scandal involving the Nixon administration in which the Democratic presidential campaign was brazenly spied

• investigative journalists uncovered the plot

• Nixon was impeaches, choosing to resign in order to escape removal from office

Roe v Wade and it’s effect on society

• the Supreme Court ruled that abortion was a constitutional right on the basis of “right to privacy”

• this decision galvanized evangelical Christians around the conservative Republican Party as a vehicle for opposing the right to abortion

• See: New Right, Moral Majority

The EPA

• the Environmental Protection Agency was a regulatory agency that sought to put limits on the environmental impact of industry on the land, and air, and water

PERIOD NINE (1980-PRESENT)

Reagan and Conservationism

The emergence of the New Right and the role of religion

• many Americans, especially conservative suburban whites, had become wary of Great Society initiatives and the growth of government responsibility and called for the slashing of numerous programs to limit government spending

• at the same time, the fusion of Christian values and the Republican Party occurred in the 1970s, especially surrounding the issue of abortuon

• See: Affirmative action, Moral Majority, Roe v Wade, Right to Life

Presidential and congressional elections of 1980

• former Governor of California, Reagan campaigned on the conservative values of the New Right, winning the presidency in 1980

• with the Moral Majority’s help, Republicans also established a majority in the Senate for the first time in almost 30 years

Reagan’s economic platform

• nicknamed Reaganomics, his policy held that greater tax cuts for investors and entrepreneurs would encourage saving and investment, thus producing economic benefits that would reach every level of the economy

• this directly rejected the adherence to stimulatory practices of Keynesian economics

• See: Supply-side economics, Economic Recovery Act, “Trick down” theory, New Deal/Great Society

Reagan decreases funding to programs

• welfare programs furthered by the New Deal and Great Society initiatives were cut or significantly defunded

• at the same time, in the midst of the Cold War, military funding was drastically increased

• See: Social Security, food stamps, Medicaid, and federal education

Reagan’s impact on the Supreme Court

• he appointed 3 conservative judges, including the first female Supreme Court justice, that would influence decisions for decades

• See: Sandra Day O’Connor, Antonin Scalia, Anthony Kennedy

End of the Cold War

Iran-Contra Affair

• the US supported anti-communist Contras in Nicaragua with profits from the illegal sale of arms to Iran

• this resulted in controversy, as it circumvented Congress’ oversight of the federal budget

• See: Sandinistas

Strategic Defense Initiative

• part of the Cold War arms race, the SDI was the buildup of advance laser-based weapons systems that could shoot down enemy missiles from space

• See: “Star Wars”

Changes in diplomatic relationship with the USSR during the 80s

• Soviet reforms under Gorbachev’s leadership led to a new common ground between the rivals and was the impetus behind signing disarmament treaties

• Reagan kept the pressure on as Gorbachev’s reforms eventually led to the collapse of Soviet rule as independence movements emerged throughout the USSR

• See: glasnost, perestroika, Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces Treaty, START I, “Tear down this wall!”, George H.W. Bush

A Changing Economy

Factors leading to increased economic activity

• technological advancements in digital communications like the internet and email expanded the reach of the American economy

• continued mechanization increased production and profits, despite rising unemployment in the late 80s and early 90s along with stagnant wages

Technology’s impact on society

• mobile access to the internet, via cell phones, created the occasion for constant connection across the country and world

• social media platforms even changed what those connections look like

Migration and Immigration

Regions that attracted the most immigrations during the 90s and 2000s

• the South and West due to their growing economic opportunities and their proximity to Mexico and Latin America, in general

Passing of immigration reforms

• a new, fairer process for entry into America was established in 1986, even granting amnesty for some people who had previously immigrated illegally

• See: Immigration Reform and Control Act

Response to increased immigration

• nativist resentment of Latino-Americans and immigrants arose, citing the competition for jobs as the major frustration (remember the Irish?)

• still, immigration contributed to significant economic growth throughout this period

Challenges of the 21st Century

Effects of the 9/11 attacks

• the declaration of a “Global War on Terror” led to increased US military intervention across the world, especially in the Middle East

• heightened national security concerns also led to increased surveillance measures and Islamophobia

• See: Osama bin Laden and al-Qaeda, Afghanistan and Taliban, Department of Homeland Security, Patriot Act

Environmental concerns

• global warming had long been a significant concern for over a half century but the increased dependence on fossil fuels was more deeply correlated with climate change

• this led to calls for alternative energy sources and the “go green” movement

• See: Al Gore, “An Inconvenient Truth”