Conditioning & Learning:

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Important (#edcae9)

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Key Concepts:

1. Basics of Learning.

2. Classical Conditioning.

3. Operant Conditioning.

4. Modelling/Observational Learning.

5. Cognitive Learning.

Learning:

Learning is a relatively permanent change in knowledge, or behaviour that results from experience.

It excludes:

• Temporary changes or changes due to factors such as mood, drugs etc.

• Permanent changes due to diseases, maturation.

Associative Learning:

Style of learning to associate two stimuli or a stimulus and a response, resulting in a change in behavior.

Key Concepts:

1. Antecedents: Events that precede a response; important in classical conditioning.

2. Consequences: Effects that follow a response; more important in operant conditioning.

3. Reinforcements: Any event that increases the probability of a response occurring.

Classical Conditioning:

• Linking an anecdote stimulus that doesn’t produce a response with one that does.

• Also called Pavlovian or respondent conditioning.

Key terms:

1. Neutral Stimulus (NS): Stimulus that does not cause response.

2. Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Stimulus that naturally causes response.

3. Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural response caused by Unconditioned Stimulus.

4. Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Stimulus that causes a response after being paired with Unconditioned Stimulus.

5. Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response caused by Conditioned Stimulus.

6. Extinction: Weakening of a conditioned response through removal of unconditioned stimulus.

7. Spontaneous recovery: Reappearance of a learned response following apparent extinction.

8. Higher-Order Conditioning: A Conditioned Stimulus is later used to reinforce further learning i.e. the Conditioned Stimulus is used as though it were a Unconditioned Stimulus.

9. Stimulus generalization: A tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical to a conditioned stimulus.

10. Stimulus discrimination: The learned ability to respond differently to similar stimuli.

Operant Conditioning:

• AKA instrumental learning.

• B. F. Skinner. Developed Skinner box, experimenting on pigeons and rats

• Studied by Thorndike and his Law of Effect.

• Law of Effect: The probability of a response is altered by the effect it has.

• Learning is based on the consequences of responding; we associate responses with their consequences.

Key Terms:

1. Positive reinforcement: When a response is followed by a reward or other positive event.

2. Negative reinforcement: When a response is followed by the removal of an unpleasant event.

3. Positive punishment: Any unpleasant consequence that follows a response and decreases the likelihood of it recurring.

4. Negative punishment: Removal of a positive reinforcer after a response is made.

5. Response chaining: A linked series of actions that leads to reinforcement.

6. Shaping: Which is the reinforcement of behaviours that are increasingly close approximations to a desired response.

Factors influencing the effectiveness of learning:

1. Intensity: e.g. subjective value of rewards.

2. Timing: Immediate delivery of reinforcement or punishment after target behaviour displayed.

3. Consistency: Learning works best when it is response-contingent.

4. Reinforcement Schedules: Plans for determining which responses will be reinforced i.e. continuous vs partial.

5. Continuous Reinforcement: Reinforcer follows every correct response.

6. Partial Reinforcement Schedule:

   • Fixed & variable ratio (frequency): Response given after a fixed or varying amount of frequency of correct responses made.

   • Fixed & variable interval (time): Response given after a fixed or varying amount of time passed after response made.

Observational Learning:

• Learning is achieved by watching and imitating the actions of another or noting the consequences of those actions.

• Model: Someone who serves as an example in observational learning, including media models.

• Bo-bo Clown Doll experiment by Albert Bandura

Conditions:

1. Learner must pay attention to model and remember what was done.

2. Learner must be able to produce observed behaviour.

3. Learner is more likely to imitate behaviour if model is successful or has been rewarded for response.

4. Learner is more likely to repeat learned behaviour also when it is reinforced

Cognitive Learning:

Style of learning that focuses on understanding and engaging with information actively, rather than passively memorizing it.

• Cognitive Learning: Ability to acquire behaviours, skills & information in ways that are heavily dependent on memory, thinking & problem solving.

• Much of learning can be explained by classical and operant conditioning, but has ‘mental elements’ e.g. expectations, perceptions.

• Phobias are also contributed by expectations or knowledge of feared objects. Ex: spiders can actually kill, falling from heights cause death.

• Learner characteristics which promote learning:

  1. Growth vs Fixed Mindsets:

     • A growth mindset believes that abilities can be developed through dedication and effort.

     • A fixed mindset believes that abilities are innate and unchangeable.

  2. Auditory, visual or kinesthetic:

     • Visual learners learn best through seeing.

     • Auditory learners through listening.

     • Kinesthetic learners through doing.

• Also influenced by methods of instructions:

  1. Direct Instruction: Presented by lecture, or demonstration and students often learn through role practice.

  2. Discovery Learning: Teachers create conditions which encourage students to discover or construct knowledge for themselves.

• Latent learning: Occurs without obvious reinforcement and isn’t shown until reinforcement is provided.