MJ

Theory and Research: Key Concepts and a Case Study in Digital Technology Use

Core Concepts of Theory

  • Theory is an explanation of observed regularities or patterns.
  • It is composed of interrelated, verifiable statements or propositions.
  • 3 components of a theory:
    • Definitions: specify what key terms mean (example: Attachments are stable bonds between people who are fond of each other).
    • Descriptions: outline the characteristics of the phenomena of interest (example: attachments to parents and other family members tend to decline in adolescence because after 25 new attachments develop as a person marries, becomes a parent or gets a job).
    • Relational statements: connect two or more variables so that knowing the value of one variable conveys information about the other (example: As the proportion of people aged 15-25 decreases, the crime rate also decreases).
  • Variables: an attribute or characteristic that may vary over time or from case to case. See also dependent variable and independent variable; compare with constant.
  • Relational statements come in two forms:
    • Deterministic: two variables always go together in a particular way (example: As the number of people aged 15-25 decreases by 1%, the crime rate also shrinks by 1%).
      rac{\Delta P{15-25}}{-1\%} \Rightarrow \Delta R{crime} = -1\%.
    • Probabilistic: two variables go together with some degree of regularity but the relationship is not inevitable (example: regions with decreasing 15-25 are more likely to experience a decline in crime rate than regions where the 15-25 population is increasing).
      P(R \downarrow \mid P{15-25} \downarrow) > P(R \downarrow \mid P{15-25} \uparrow).
  • When a case does not fit the pattern, the relational statement may require modification (the theory is not automatically invalidated by anomalies).
  • One of the times when the variables are not related in the usual way is noted in empirical work as a reminder that theories may not apply uniformly across contexts.

The Nature of Variables and Relational Statements

  • Variables: an attribute or characteristic that may vary by time or case.
  • Forms of relational statements:
    • Deterministic: a universal or near-universal relation between variables (e.g., $\Delta P{15-25} = -1\%$ leads to $\Delta R{crime} = -1\%$).
    • Probabilistic: a regular association that is not guaranteed, with some probability of deviation.
  • The role of empirical testing: findings that do not fit the pattern do not automatically necessitate theory modification; rather, researchers assess whether adjustments to the relational statements are warranted.

Middle-Range Theories vs Grand Theories

  • Middle-range theories: more limited in scope, directly testable through empirical evidence.
  • Classic examples:
    • Durkheim's theory of suicide: suicide is a function of social integration level.
    • Merton's anomie theory: crime is more common when society instills a desire for wealth but provides insufficient means.
  • Purpose: to understand and explain specific, bounded aspects of social life.
  • Grand theories: general and abstract theories that offer broad ways of viewing the world and inspiration for diverse research programs.
    • Examples: structural-functionalism, symbolic interactionism, critical theory, post-structuralism, feminism.
    • Standpoint theory (Dorothy Smith): worldview is influenced by status and power hierarchies; encourages examination of perceptions of marginalized groups.
    • Giddens’s structuration theory: emphasizes the duality of structure and agency; can be applied to particular issues to yield insights.

Grand Theory and Social Research: A Case Example

  • Grand theory concept (as discussed by Gibbs) aims to bridge structure and agency in social life.
  • Neves, Waycott, & Malta (2018) study: use of digital technologies among older adults in Canada and Australia.
    • Design: mixed-methods (interviews, focus groups, attitude scales, field observations).
    • Participants: frail institutionalized older adults and those living with community assistance.
    • Findings:
    • The age-based digital divide did not adequately describe the social complexity surrounding technology use among this age group.
    • Most participants used the app, with varying degrees of sophistication and creativity.
    • Social structures impacted adoption; relatives' willingness to assist in learning was a key factor.
    • Agency was described as evolving within the context of these social structures, influenced by personal perceptions and desires.

Connections to Foundational Principles and Real-World Relevance

  • The theories illustrate the interplay between structure and agency, social integration, power dynamics, and the role of social contexts in shaping behavior.
  • The digital technology study demonstrates how grand theories can be applied to contemporary issues (technology adoption among older adults) and how traditional categories (like an age-based digital divide) may oversimplify real-world complexity.

Implications and Applications

  • Theoretical implications:
    • Use middle-range theories to test specific hypotheses directly, then refine relational statements as needed.
    • Consider how grand theories can guide interpretation of complex social phenomena while remaining open to empirical refinements.
  • Practical and ethical implications:
    • In technology adoption, consider how social structures (family support, caregiving, institutional settings) facilitate or hinder use; the role of agency and personal desire must be acknowledged.
    • When designing interventions for older adults, leverage relatives’ willingness to assist and tailor approaches to different levels of digital sophistication.

Summary of Key Takeaways

  • Theory comprises definitions, descriptions, and relational statements that link variables.
  • Deterministic relations imply a consistent law-like link; probabilistic relations show regularities without guarantees.
  • Anomalies invite refinement, not blanket rejection of theory.
  • Middle-range theories offer testable, bounded explanations; grand theories provide broad frameworks about structure and agency.
  • Case studies (e.g., Durkheim, Merton, Standpoint theory, structuration) illustrate how theories operate and interact.
  • Empirical research on technology use among older adults demonstrates the importance of social structures and agency in shaping outcomes, highlighting that broad concepts like the digital divide may be insufficient on their own.