Chapter 2 Notes: Phrases, Verbs, and Dependent Clauses

Phrase Types and Functions

• A phrase is a group of related words with a function in the sentence. In English, phrases come in three main types:
  • Verb phrase
  • Verbal phrase
  • Prepositional phrase

Prepositional Phrase

• Key idea: always begins with a preposition and includes an object; it may have other modifying words.
• Function: acts as an enhancer or modifier. It can answer questions as an adjective (which one, what) or as an adverb (what, when, where, why, how).
• Page reference: examples on page 9–13 (top of page 13 shows multiple examples).
• Important reminder: the prepositional phrase itself has no finite verb; the preposition links to its object.

Verb Phrase

• Definition: a verb phrase consists of the main verb plus any helping (auxiliary) verbs that may appear with it. It may appear in inverted order, especially in questions.
• Example and analysis (page 10):
  • Example: "Did the man listen to your conversation?"
  • Breakdown: subject = "the man"; verb phrase = "did listen"; main verb = "listen"; helper/auxiliary = "did".
• Inversion in questions is common: order is reversed compared to a statement.
• Important point about "not":
  • The word not is an adverb, not part of the verb.
  • Example: "She was not measuring up to our standards."
  • Here, the verb phrase is was measuring and not modifies it; don’t treat "not" as part of the verb phrase.

Verbal Phrases (Three Kinds)

• Verbal phrases are formed from verbs used in special ways, but not as the main finite verbs of the clause. The three kinds are:

1) Gerund

• Definition: a form of the verb ending in -ing that is used as a noun.
• Function: always functions as a noun (subject or direct object, etc.).
• Important nuance: even though it looks like a verb form, its role is a noun.
• Example from page 11: one tricky test item is the possessive rule before a gerund.
  • Correct form: "I always enjoyed listening to his singing." (use possessive before the gerund).
  • The instinct to say "to him singing" is incorrect; the possessive pronoun form must precede the gerund.
  • Rule: if a pronoun comes before a gerund, it must be in possessive form (e.g., his, my, your, their, etc.).

2) Participle

• Definition: a verb form ending in -ing or -ed that functions as an adjective.
• Distinction from gerund: if it’s used as a noun, it’s a gerund; if it’s used to describe a noun, it’s a participle.
• Present participle vs past participle:
  • Present participle typically ends in -ing and describes an ongoing (continuous) state.
  • Past participle ends in -ed (or sometimes irregular forms) and describes a completed state.
• Note: the participle is still a verb form, but its function is adjectival.

3) Infinitive

• Definition: formed by to + base form of the verb (e.g., to enter).

• Functions: can be used as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb.

• Important: the infinitive is not part of the verb or verb phrase.

• Example: "He tried to enter the house via the back window."

  • The phrase to enter is an infinitive; functionally, it acts as the direct object of the verb "tried" (what did he try? to enter).

• Distinction between infinitive vs prepositional use of "to":

  • If a word begins with to plus a verb, it can be an infinitive.
  • If to is followed by a noun phrase, it may be part of a prepositional phrase (e.g., "to go to the game"; here to go is infinitive, while to the game is a prepositional phrase with the object game).
  • Example: "She wanted to go" vs "She wanted to go to the game". In the latter, the segment "to the game" is a prepositional phrase, not part of the infinitive.

• Summary of the three verbals:

  • Gerund: verb form ending in -ing used as a noun.
  • Participle: verb form ending in -ing or -ed used as an adjective.
  • Infinitive: to + verb; can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb; not part of the verb phrase.

Dependent Clause

• Definition: a group of related words that has a subject and a verb but cannot stand alone as a sentence.
• Relationship: depends on an independent clause to complete its meaning.
• Functions: can function as a noun, an adjective, or an adverb:
  • As a noun: can act as a subject or direct object.
  • As an adjective: modifies a noun or pronoun.
  • As an adverb: modifies a verb, an adjective, or another adverb.
• Punctuation: the punctuation of the dependent clause is related to its function in the sentence.
• Elliptical clause (a related concept):
  • An elliptical clause is still a clause but may have an understood (omitted) verb or subject.
  • Example: "He reads more quickly than I read." Here, the verb in the second clause is understood (elliptical).
  • If the verb or subject is missing, it remains a clause, but the full clause is implied.
• Introductory words and clause starters (page 17):
  • A list of introductory words that can start a dependent clause (and how they function) includes relative pronouns and subordinating conjunctions.
  • Relative pronouns (5 listed): who, whom, whose, which, and that.
  • Subordinating conjunctions: link dependent clauses to independent clauses (full list on page 17).

Relative Pronouns and Subordinating Conjunctions

• Relative pronouns (5): who, whom, whose, which, that.
• Subordinating conjunctions: words that introduce dependent clauses and connect them to independent clauses (examples provided on page 17).
• These elements help determine how dependent clauses attach within sentences and their role (noun, adjective, or adverb).

Function, Punctuation, and Practical Implications

• Key distinction: a clause has a subject and a verb; a phrase does not.
• The dependent clause’s function determines punctuation:
  • If the dependent clause acts as a noun (subject or object), it may influence comma usage and sentence flow.
  • If it acts as an adjective, it’s set off in ways that clarify what noun it modifies.
  • If it acts as an adverb, it affects how the action is described (when, where, why, how).
• The materials emphasize the importance of correctly identifying phrases vs. clauses for accurate transcription, especially in legal contexts (court reporting): misidentification can lead to misunderstandings or misinterpretations in transcripts that could affect outcomes.

Practical Guidance and Study Approach

• Read through chapter 2 to understand how these elements function and interact.
• Expect practice examples later (not a test yet) to build a solid foundation.
• If anything is unclear, seek clarification from the instructor (e.g., via conference, email) to ensure conceptual understanding.
• The instructor emphasizes the real-world impact of grammar on transcripts and legal outcomes, underscoring the practical significance of these concepts for court reporters.

Summary of Core Concepts to Remember

• Phrases vs. clauses:
  • Phrase: no subject + verb; functions as a modifier or complement (e.g., prepositional phrase, verbal phrases).
  • Clause: contains a subject and a verb; can be independent or dependent.
• Three verbal types:
  • Gerund: -ing form functioning as a noun (subject/direct object); possessive pronoun before gerund is required (e.g., listening to his singing).
  • Participle: -ing or -ed form functioning as an adjective (describes a noun/pronoun).
  • Infinitive: to + base verb; can function as noun, adjective, or adverb; not part of the verb phrase; context with objects (e.g., to enter, to go) determines its role and whether surrounding words form a separate prepositional phrase (e.g., to the game).
• Dependent clauses can function as nouns, adjectives, or adverbs and must be joined to an independent clause to form a complete sentence.
• Elliptical clauses involve understood elements (missing subject or verb) but remain a clause; punctuation rules still apply.
• Always distinguish prepositional phrases by presence of a preposition plus object; they can be elaborators or modifiers and may include other words.

Connection to Real-World Relevance

• For court reporters, precise parsing of phrases and clauses is critical to ensure transcripts reflect the intended meaning and avoid misinterpretation.
• Misidentifying a gerund vs. infinitive or mistaking a prepositional phrase for part of an infinitive can change who did what, when, and how.
• The discussion reinforces the foundational grammar needed to organize thoughts, punctuate correctly, and convey exact information in legal documents.

References to Textual Cues Mentioned

• Examples cited:
  • "Did the man listen to your conversation?" (page 10, inversion in questions)
  • "She was not measuring up to our standards." (page 10, role of not)
  • "I always enjoyed listening to his singing." (gerund with possessive before gerund)
  • "He tried to enter the house via the back window." (infinitive within a sentence)
  • Demonstrations of how infinitive vs. prepositional phrases interact with from/to usage (page 10–13 references)
• Page references summarized: discussions across pages 9–19, with emphasis on page 10 (verb phrases), page 11 (gerund examples), page 13 (prepositional phrases), page 17–18 (introductory words, relative pronouns, subordinating conjunctions), and page 19 (functional roles and punctuation).