Note
Studied by 9 peopleNoteStudied by 12 peopleNoteStudied by 10 peopleNoteStudied by 12 peopleNoteStudied by 8 peopleNoteStudied by 13 peopleCHAPTER 2
HEALTH VARIATIONS
Population subgroup Biological Sociocultural Environmental | |||
Males Vs Females | males have higher testosterone compared to females. This can increase risk-taking behaviour like driving recklessly, causing fatal deaths. The injuries could cause premature death, reducing life expectancy, compared to females who take fewer risks. | different occupations require different levels of physical labour, for example, manual occupations. males are more likely than females to have manual jobs. This can increase the likelihood of injuries in the workplace because they are more active and partaking in more intense labour at work, leading to higher rates of morbidity, compared to females. | Males are more likely to work with chemicals and hazardous substances. this can make them more likely to experience health conditions such as respiratory conditions and some types of cancer which can lead to premature deaths, decreasing life expectancy. |
High SES Vs Low SES | People living in a low SES environment are more likely to suffer from obesity than people living in high SES environments. this is because they may be unable to afford nutritious meals, leading them to consume cheaper, highly processed foods full of saturated and trans fats. this could lead to people suffering from cardiovascular diseases like heart attacks and strokes which can lead to premature deaths, contributing to higher rates of mortality, compared to people living in high SES environments. | People with a low SES may be unable to afford to access healthcare. this may mean they are unable to attend regular checkups, leading to diseases such as cancer, going untreated. this can lead to premature deaths, decreasing life expectancy compared to those with a high SES. | People with a low SES are more likely to work in dangerous environments compared to people with a high SES. This may include exposure to harsh chemicals or hazardous substances, both of which can lead to a higher prevalence of respiratory conditions in low SES groups compared to high SES groups. |
Indigenous Vs Non-Indigenous Australians | Indigenous Women are more likely to give birth to a baby with a low birth weight than non-Indigenous Australians. This may be because they are more likely to be born prematurely due to a lack of medical intervention. having a low birth weight may mean the baby has a weakened immune system and is more likely to die before their first birthday from infectious diseases, contributing to higher rates of infant mortality, than non-indigenous Australians. | Indigenous Australians are less likely to have high levels of education compared to non-indigenous Australians. this may mean they have a lower health literacy and are less aware of unhealthy behaviours such as smoking, which can lead to lung cancer. lung cancer can lead to premature deaths, negatively impacting life expectancy compared to non-indigenous Australians. | Indigenous Australians are more likely to live in overcrowded housing conditions compared to non-indigenous Australians. this can lead to unhygienic environments and an increased spread of infectious diseases, increasing the morbidity rates of indigenous people suffering from infectious diseases compared to non-indigenous Australians. |
Living Outside Vs Within Major Cities | People living outside of Australia’s major cities experience higher rates of impaired glucose regulation. This could be because there are more fast-food places in close proximity, leading to people becoming overweight and having impaired glucose function. having impaired glucose function can lead to a higher prevalence of type 2 diabetes in communities outside major cities compared to those within major cities. | people living outside major cities are more likely to experience social isolation than people living inside major cities. this is because people may not be able to keep in contact with others due to their geographical location. this can cause mental health problems like anxiety and depression, leading to a higher prevalence of mental illnesses in communities living outside major cities compared to those who live within major cities. | people living outside major cities may have to travel further distances to seek medical treatment than those living within major cities. this could lead to certain diseases going undiagnosed and untreated because they are unable to attend regular checkups. this could lead to premature death, increasing mortality rates compared to those living in major cities. |
BIOLOGICAL FACTORS
*learn 3
factors relating to the body and its systems that impact health
Body Weight
Body weight can be evaluated using an indicator known as Body Mass Index (BMI)
Obese: BMI above 30
Normal: 18.5 - 25 BMI
overweight: 25 - 30 BMI
A higher body weight is more susceptible to conditions:
High cholesterol
High blood pressure
type 2 diabetes
cardiovascular disease
arthritis
Mental health conditions (depression)
Some cancers (colorectal cancer)
Blood Pressure (BP)
measured using systolic pressure pressure over diastolic pressure
Systolic pressure: The highest point measured in the pressure cycle (when the heart contracts)
Diastolic Pressure: The lowest point measured in the pressure cycle (When the heart relaxes)
normal blood pressure is 120/80
Hypertension: high blood pressure - blood will not flow as easily through the blood vessels.
Hypertension can cause:
restricted blood flow
increased pressure on the heart and kidneys
kidney failure
cardiovascular disease (stroke + heart attack)
Blood cholesterol
Cholesterol: a type of fat required by body - created in the liver
most people consume additional cholesterol from animal products such as:
full cream milk
fatty cuts of meat
High cholesterol can cause:
cardiovascular disease
atherosclerosis
Atherosclerosis: parts of cholesterol (low-density lipoprotein) get stuck on the walls of the blood vessels, causing a smaller space for blood to move through - causes Hypertension
results in plaque build-up and hardening of arteries.
Glucose Regulation
Glucose: fuel used to provide energy in cells
food is consumed
carbohydrates are broken down into glucose
glucose in the bloodstream triggers the release of insulin from the pancreas
insulin allows glucose to be used for energy and also monitors blood sugar levels
Impaired glucose regulation occurs when blood sugar levels are higher than normal
can cause glucose to be prevented from being absorbed into the cells which can cause type 2 diabetes
Low birth weight
low birth weight = under 2.5kg
Babies with a low birth weight are more susceptible to:
underdeveloped immune systems (making them more susceptible to infection)
premature death
speech and learning difficulties
eye conditions
more susceptible to conditions in adulthood:
high blood pressure (hypertension)
type 2 diabetes
cardiovascular disease.
Pregnant women’s actions can reduce the risk of their baby having a low birth weight.
Some of the leading causes of low birth weight include:
smoking and alcohol use during pregnancy
premature birth
inadequate nutritional intake by the mother
illness during pregnancy
age of the mother
Genetics
some conditions are only carried in males or females
ovarian cancer in females
prostate cancer in males
males due to high levels of testosterone are more likely to participate in risk-taking behaviours
males are more likely to store body weight around the abdomen, increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease
women are more likely to store weight on hips and thighs
some people more likely to suffer from conditions due to genetic predisposition
for example:
cancer
cardiovascular disease
diabetes
depression
obesity
Example
give 2 examples and explain how they may influence health status?
An individual with a low birth weight, is likely to be born prematurely which can mean their lungs are underdeveloped. This can cause respiratory conditions which could lead to the baby dying prematurely, increasing infant mortality. being overweight, an individual is more likely to experience cardiovascular disease which causes hypertension. this could lead to strokes which could cause premature death, increasing mortality.
SOCIOCULTURAL FACTORS
*learn 3
the social and cultural conditions in which people are born, work, grow, age and live in
Socioeconomic Status
a measure used to determine the social status of an individual using the factors of income, occupation, and education.
low socioeconomic status can have adverse effects on health outcomes
may limit the resources available to an individual to live a healthy and productive life.
Access to healthcare
vital to ensure individuals have good health
Health professionals such as doctors, dentists, surgeons, physiotherapists, and specialists are needed to treat a variety of health conditions
many individuals face various barriers to healthcare:
Financial Barriers
can limit access to things not covered by medicare
can limit access to private health insurance
Cultural Barriers
Indigenous Australians are less likely to access western medical services for treatment.
Indigenous Australians often seek medical advice and treatment from people in their own culture
certain religious beliefs may prevent some individuals from accessing some health services.
Food Security
when all people can obtain nutritionally adequate, culturally appropriate, safe food regularly through local non-emergency sources.
essential to lead a healthy and productive life
Food insecurity: when individuals are unable to have access to a consistent source of safe, nutritious food
Occurs when people unable to access adequate food sources due to factors such as low income and low health literacy
Low income: may mean people are reliant on cheaper, processed foods
high in salt, fat and sugar
Low health literacy: people are more likely to consume processed, energy-dense
foods
can cause:
type 2 diabetes
cardiovascular disease
nutrient defficiencies (aneamia)
Early Life Experiences
The behaviours of pregnant mothers can have an impact on the future health of their unborn child
smoking, drug use and poor nutrition whilst pregnant can impact health
low birth weight
poor immune system
Greater likelihood of U5MR
Higher risk of cardiovascular disease later in life
Higher risk of diabetes later in life
Unemployment
has clear link to bad health outcome
Unemployment may be short or long term and the impacts on health can be varied.
can cause:
mental health conditions
cardiovascular disease
suicide and self harm
increased stress and anxiety
Social exclusion and isolation
Social isolation: individuals who are not in regular contact with others.
often a result of geographical barriers
limit peoples ability to interact with other people.
Social exclusion: The segregation that people experience if they are not adequately participating in the society in which they live
more susceptable to:
mental health issues
disability
poverty
homelessness
can cause:
substance abuse
suicide and self harm
stress
mental health conditions
ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS
*learn 3
The physical surroundings in which we live, work and play
Air and Water quality
Poor air quality: Environmental tobacco smoke, industrial pollution, pollen and motor vehicle emissions can impact negatively on respiritory health
can lead to:
athsma
lung cancer
respiratory conditions
Poor water quality: can be caused by natural disasters such as floods and bushfires, and it can also be impacted by human influences such as industrial pollution.
Can lead to:
increased water borne diseases
decreased immune function
poor nutrition
Work environment
the environment people work in can negatively impact health outcomes
Outdoor jobs: farmers and trades people
have higher UV exposure
higher rates of melanoma
Labour based jobs: Farming and mining
increase the likelihood of workers suffering injuries and accidents
Transport drivers: spend extended time on the roads
increases the likelihood of being involved in a transport accident.
people working with chemicals and hazardous substances:
fire fighters, construction workers and those in manufacturing
more likely to suffer health conditions
respiratory diseases
some types of cancer
Climate and climate change
The Australian climate is generally considered to be warm and dry
This contributes to high rates of UV exposure
high rates of melanoma skin cancer.
Changes in climate have seen an increase in average temperatures
high levels of drought
bushfires
farmers and people reliant on the land for employment and income
higher rates of mental health challenges
depression
suicide
self harm
Housing
Safety and Design
The correct and safe maintenance of houses can impact risk of injury
maintenance of stairs and balconies
Houses with pools, spas and open water
increase risk of drowning injury and death
Sleeping conditions: Houses should promote good and restful sleep to improve mental health.
Overcrowded conditions:
greater risk of mental health conditions due to increased stress
increase risk of infectious diseases from lack of hygiene.
Ventilation
required to reduce risk of asthma and respiratory conditions.
Urban design and infrastructure
Geographical access to resources
Having access to resources such as supermarkets and healthcare can decrease risk of poor health
more likely to access these health promoting resources
Access to nutritious foods decreases likelihood of suffering food insecurity
Proximity to takeaway food outlets,increase likelihood of consuming energy dense foods.
Infrastructure
Ensuring roads are well maintained and safe
decreases the risk of road injury and death
Adequate water and sanitation facilities
reduced risk of water borne infections such as diarrhoea
Public transport systems and information and communication technology
increase peoples ability to maintain social connections and promote positive social and mental health.
CONTRIBUTING FACTORS TO BOD
Smoking
Smoking: refers to a practice in which a substance (eg. tobacco) is burned and the resulting smoke is inhaled to be tasted and absorbed into the bloodstream.
highest proportion of BOD
smoking causes blood to thicken
can stick to the arteries, forming blood clots
increases risk of heart attack
causes cancer
causes respiratory conditions
e.g. Athsma
atherosclerosis
Narrowing of blood vessels
Example
link to Health Status and BOD
smoking can cause your blood to thicken and stick to the arteries, forming clots. this can increase your risk of heart attacks, which can cause premature death, decreasing life expectancy. smoking during pregnancy can increase the risk of the baby being born prematurely, which can lead to their lungs being underdeveloped. this can mean they are more susceptable to infections and can die pramaturely, increasing YLL.
Alcohol
Alcohol: has been available to people for thousands of years. Some people choose not to drink alcohol, some choose to drink alcohol but within the Guidelines for low-risk drinking, whilst others drink alcohol at harmful/risky levels (or misuse alcohol).
Alcoholism: when a person can’t stop drinking once they have started, or have a constant desire to drink alcohol.
Binge drinking: drinking seven or more standard drinks for males or five or more standard drinks for females on one occasion.
Short term Effects:
hangovers
vomitting
memory loss
impaired decision making
car accidents
Long term effects:
cirrhosis of the liver
Overweight and obesity
type 2 diabetes
brain damage
cardiovascular disease
Example
Drinking during pregnancy can pass through the placenta and affect the baby’s development. this can cause Foetal alcohol syndrome which can increase the prevalence of mental and behavioural problems. Alcohol is filtered by the liver, so excessive use can contribute to damage of the liver such as scarring,increasing the risk of cirrhosis, contributing to DALY through both YLD and YLL (due to premature death).
High BMI
Body mass: relates to the amount of body weight an individual is carrying.
Body mass index (BMI): provides a height-to-weight ratioand is calculated using the formula
Example
High body mass index (BMI) can increase strain on the heart increasing the risk of hypertension (high bloodpressure) thus increasing the risk of cardiovascular disease contributing to mortality, decreasing life expectancy. High body mass index (BMI) increases the risk of children developing respiratory conditions such as asthma, contributing to DALY, mainly through YLD.
Underconsumption
Fruits and Vegetables
high in fibre
good form of antioxidants
fibre can promote a feeling of fullness which can make you less likely to overeat. this can help you maintain a healthy body weight which can aid digestion and make you less likely to be constipated, reducing the prevalence of colon cancer.
NoteStudied by 9 peopleNoteStudied by 12 peopleNoteStudied by 10 peopleNoteStudied by 12 peopleNoteStudied by 8 peopleNoteStudied by 13 people