Document from LAKSH PANCHOLI

Electric Charge and Coulomb's Law

• Charge (Q): The fundamental property of matter that causes it to experience a force in an electromagnetic field.

  • Unit: Coulomb (C)

  • Quantization of Charge: The charge is quantized, expressed as Q = ±ne where n is an integer, and e = 1.6 × 10⁻¹⁹ C.

• Coulomb’s Law: Defines the force between two point charges.

  • Formula: F = k (|q₁ q₂| / r²)

  • Where: k = 8.99 × 10⁹ N m²/C² is Coulomb's constant.

Electric Field

• Electric Field (E): A field around charged particles that exerts a force on other charged objects.

  • Formula: E = F/q (force per unit charge).

  • Units: Newton per Coulomb (N/C).

Dipole and Electric Fields

• Electric Dipole: A pair of equal and opposite charges separated by a distance.

  • Dipole moment (p): p = qd, where d is the distance between the charges.

• Electric Field of a Dipole: The electric field created at a point in space by a dipole can be calculated using appropriate formulas based on the dipole distance and angle.

Capacitance

• Capacitance (C): The ability of a system to store charge per unit voltage.

  • Formula: C = Q/V, where Q is the charge, and V is the voltage.

Types of Capacitors

• Parallel Plate Capacitor: Consists of two parallel conductive plates separated by a dielectric material.

  • Capacitance Formula: C = ε₀A/d, where ε₀ = permittivity of free space, A = area of plates, and d = separation.

• Series and Parallel Combinations:

  • Series: 1/C_total = 1/C₁ + 1/C₂ + ...

  • Parallel: C_total = C₁ + C₂ + ...

Current and Resistance

• Current (I): The rate of flow of electric charge.

  • Unit: Ampere (A)

  • Formula: I = Q/t where Q is charge and t is time.

• Resistance (R): Opposition to the flow of current.

  • Ohm's Law: V = IR where V is voltage, I is current, and R is resistance.

Ohmic and Non-Ohmic Conductors

• Ohmic Conductors: Have a constant resistance regardless of voltage and current.

• Non-Ohmic Conductors: Resistance varies with voltage and current.

Rules and Principles in Circuits

• Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law: The sum of the electrical potential differences (voltage) around any closed circuit is zero.

• Kirchhoff's Current Law: The total current entering a junction must equal the total current leaving the junction.

Magnetic Fields and Forces

• Magnetic Field (B): A field produced by moving electric charges (current) or by magnetic materials.

  • Formula: F = q(v × B) for a charge moving in a magnetic field.

• Lorentz Force: The force on a point charge moving in an electric and magnetic field.

  • Formula: F = q(E + v × B)

Induction and Electromagnetic Waves

• Faraday's Law of Induction: The induced electromotive force (emf) in any closed circuit is equal to the time rate of change of the magnetic flux through the circuit.

• Maxwell's Equations: A set of four equations that form the foundation of classical electromagnetism, describing how electric and magnetic fields are generated and altered.

Properties of Light and Optics

• Snell's Law: Describes how light bends when entering a new medium.

  • Formula: n₁sin(θ₁) = n₂sin(θ₂)

• Reflection and Refraction: Light can reflect off surfaces or change direction when passing through different media.

Quantum Mechanics of Light

• Photon Energy: E = hf where h is Planck's constant and f is the frequency.

• Wave-Particle Duality: Light exhibits both wave-like and particle-like properties.

Nuclei and Radioactivity

• Nuclear Decay: The process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by emitting radiation.

  • Types: Alpha decay, Beta decay, Gamma decay.

• Isotopes: Variants of a particular chemical element that have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

Principles of Thermodynamics

• First Law: Energy cannot be created or destroyed, only transformed.

• Second Law: In all energy exchanges, if no energy enters or leaves the system, the potential energy of the state will always be less than that of the initial state.