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Chapter 9 Developmental Psychology

Chapter Overview

  • Developmental Psychology

    • Study of how behaviors and thoughts change over a lifetime.

    • Interconnected with concepts from other psychology chapters.

Nature vs. Nurture

  • Nature vs. Nurture Debate

    • Investigates how much behaviors are influenced by genetics (nature) vs. learned experiences (nurture).

    • Chapter begins with genetic influences, then discusses acquired influences.

Research Designs in Developmental Psychology

  • Cross-Sectional Research

    • Examines different age groups at a single point in time to identify age-related changes.

    • Example: Studying memory across age groups (10-19, 20-29, etc.).

    • Criticism: Historical events and cultural trends can affect results.

  • Longitudinal Research

    • Follows the same individuals over a prolonged period to observe changes.

    • Data collected at regular intervals (e.g., every five years).

    • Challenges: High costs and difficulties in tracking participants.

Genetic Influences on Development

  • Innate Abilities and Traits

    • Genetic factors determine some characteristics (e.g., physical traits).

    • Prenatal environment crucial for development.

    • Teratogens: Harmful substances affecting fetal development.

  • Placenta's Role

    • Temporary organ filtering harmful substances, but certain teratogens can still enter.

Effects of Substances on Fetal Development

  • Alcohol (Teratogen)

    • Small amounts can disrupt fetal brain development.

    • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Malformed skulls and developmental disabilities.

    • Fetal Alcohol Effect: Less severe outcomes but still developmental challenges.

  • Psychoactive Drugs

    • Infants can be born addicted to drugs if mothers used them during pregnancy.

    • Possible severe withdrawal symptoms in newborns.

Infant Development & Reflexes

  • Reflexes

    • Inborn reflexes: rooting, sucking, grasping, Moro, Babinski.

    • Rooting Reflex: Baby turns head to stimulus on cheek.

    • Sucking Reflex: Baby attempts to suck on objects placed in mouth.

    • Grasping Reflex: Baby curls fingers around objects placed in palm.

    • Moro Reflex: Flings limbs when startled and retracts to make small.

    • Babinski Reflex: Big toe spreads when foot is stroked.

Sensory Preferences in Infants

  • Taste and Vision

    • Babies have a preference for sweetness and initially poor eyesight (8-12 inches).

    • Visual improvement over time, with attraction to faces.

  • Hearing

    • Babies can hear sounds in the womb before birth.

Motor Development

  • Motor Control and Development Timeline

    • Development of coordination as neurons mature. Typical milestones:

      • Rolling over by 5.5 months

      • Standing by 8-9 months

      • Walking by 15 months

Attachment and Parenting

  • Imprinting (Konrad Lorenz)

    • Attachment formed during a critical period after birth.

  • Harry Harlow's Monkeys

    • Preference for comfort over food (soft versus wire mother).

    • Implications for understanding attachment and stress responses.

Ainsworth's Attachment Styles

  • Types of Attachment

    • Secure (66%): Explores confidently, distressed by absence, seeks comfort upon return.

    • Avoidant (21%): Avoids closeness, does not seek comfort after separation.

    • Anxious/Ambivalent (12%): Shows distress during separation but resists comfort upon reunion.

    • Disorganized: Erratic relationships likely due to neglect or abuse.

Parenting Styles (Diana Baumrind)

  • Categories of Parenting Styles:

    • Permissive: Lacks consistent guidelines, rules are not enforced.

    • Authoritarian: Strict rules, heavy punishment, little reinforcement.

    • Authoritative: Balanced approach with reasonable expectations, praises as well as punishes.

Impact of Parenting Styles

  • Outcomes based on parenting style:

    • Authoritative homes lead to socially capable and academically successful children.

    • Permissive parenting linked to emotional control issues and dependency.

    • Authoritarian parents' children are often distrusting and withdrawn.

Theories of Development: Continuity vs. Discontinuity

  • Stage Theories of Development

    • Continuous vs. discontinuous development explored.

  • Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development

    • Tasks a child can perform alone vs. with others' help.

    • Importance of "scaffolding" by parents/teachers.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

  • Stages cover childhood and conflicts that lead to fixation:

    • Oral (0-1): Dependence through oral activities.

    • Anal (1-3): Control during toilet training.

    • Phallic (3-5): Gender identity and Oedipus/Electra complex.

    • Latency (5-6): Quiet period, developing defense mechanisms.

    • Genital (puberty onward): Focus on mature sexual relationships.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

  • Psychological conflicts at different ages defining development:

    • Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust

    • Early Childhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

    • Preschool: Initiative vs. Guilt

    • Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion

    • Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation

    • Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

  • Cognitive Stages

    • Sensorimotor (0-2): Sensory and motor coordination, object permanence.

    • Pre-operational (2-7): Development of symbolic thought, egocentrism.

    • Concrete Operational (7-11): Logical reasoning with concrete objects.

    • Formal Operational (12+): Abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning.

Critiques of Piaget

  • Developmental speed: Many children progress faster than Piaget suggested.

  • Suspicions of language bias in testing.

Information Processing Model

  • Suggests a continuous development of cognitive abilities rather than distinct stages.

Development of Moral Reasoning (Kohlberg)

  • Stages:

    • Pre-conventional: Right/wrong based on punishment/reward.

    • Conventional: Adherence to societal norms.

    • Post-conventional: Personal principles take precedence over societal expectations.

Gender Development

  • Concept of Gender

    • Socially defined norms versus biological attributes.

    • Identity develops around age 2-3 and solidifies through experiences.

Biopsychological Influences on Gender

  • Biological factors like DNA, brain structure, and hormones may impact gender behavior.

Freud's View on Gender Development

  • Concept of competition for parental affection: Boys compete with fathers, girls with mothers.

Social and Cognitive Perspectives on Gender

  • Influence of societal norms and cognitive interpretations on behavior.

Gender-Schema Theory

  • Internalization of societal gender messages informs behavior rules.