Chapter 9 Developmental Psychology

Chapter Overview

• Developmental Psychology

  • Study of how behaviors and thoughts change over a lifetime.

  • Interconnected with concepts from other psychology chapters.

Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature vs. Nurture Debate

  • Investigates how much behaviors are influenced by genetics (nature) vs. learned experiences (nurture).

  • Chapter begins with genetic influences, then discusses acquired influences.

Research Designs in Developmental Psychology

• Cross-Sectional Research

  • Examines different age groups at a single point in time to identify age-related changes.

  • Example: Studying memory across age groups (10-19, 20-29, etc.).

  • Criticism: Historical events and cultural trends can affect results.

• Longitudinal Research

  • Follows the same individuals over a prolonged period to observe changes.

  • Data collected at regular intervals (e.g., every five years).

  • Challenges: High costs and difficulties in tracking participants.

Genetic Influences on Development

• Innate Abilities and Traits

  • Genetic factors determine some characteristics (e.g., physical traits).

  • Prenatal environment crucial for development.

  • Teratogens: Harmful substances affecting fetal development.

• Placenta's Role

  • Temporary organ filtering harmful substances, but certain teratogens can still enter.

Effects of Substances on Fetal Development

• Alcohol (Teratogen)

  • Small amounts can disrupt fetal brain development.

  • Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Malformed skulls and developmental disabilities.

  • Fetal Alcohol Effect: Less severe outcomes but still developmental challenges.

• Psychoactive Drugs

  • Infants can be born addicted to drugs if mothers used them during pregnancy.

  • Possible severe withdrawal symptoms in newborns.

Infant Development & Reflexes

• Reflexes

  • Inborn reflexes: rooting, sucking, grasping, Moro, Babinski.

  • Rooting Reflex: Baby turns head to stimulus on cheek.

  • Sucking Reflex: Baby attempts to suck on objects placed in mouth.

  • Grasping Reflex: Baby curls fingers around objects placed in palm.

  • Moro Reflex: Flings limbs when startled and retracts to make small.

  • Babinski Reflex: Big toe spreads when foot is stroked.

Sensory Preferences in Infants

• Taste and Vision

  • Babies have a preference for sweetness and initially poor eyesight (8-12 inches).

  • Visual improvement over time, with attraction to faces.

• Hearing

  • Babies can hear sounds in the womb before birth.

Motor Development

• Motor Control and Development Timeline

  • Development of coordination as neurons mature. Typical milestones:

    • Rolling over by 5.5 months

    • Standing by 8-9 months

    • Walking by 15 months

Attachment and Parenting

• Imprinting (Konrad Lorenz)

  • Attachment formed during a critical period after birth.

• Harry Harlow's Monkeys

  • Preference for comfort over food (soft versus wire mother).

  • Implications for understanding attachment and stress responses.

Ainsworth's Attachment Styles

• Types of Attachment

  • Secure (66%): Explores confidently, distressed by absence, seeks comfort upon return.

  • Avoidant (21%): Avoids closeness, does not seek comfort after separation.

  • Anxious/Ambivalent (12%): Shows distress during separation but resists comfort upon reunion.

  • Disorganized: Erratic relationships likely due to neglect or abuse.

Parenting Styles (Diana Baumrind)

• Categories of Parenting Styles:

  • Permissive: Lacks consistent guidelines, rules are not enforced.

  • Authoritarian: Strict rules, heavy punishment, little reinforcement.

  • Authoritative: Balanced approach with reasonable expectations, praises as well as punishes.

Impact of Parenting Styles

• Outcomes based on parenting style:

  • Authoritative homes lead to socially capable and academically successful children.

  • Permissive parenting linked to emotional control issues and dependency.

  • Authoritarian parents' children are often distrusting and withdrawn.

Theories of Development: Continuity vs. Discontinuity

• Stage Theories of Development

  • Continuous vs. discontinuous development explored.

• Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development

  • Tasks a child can perform alone vs. with others' help.

  • Importance of "scaffolding" by parents/teachers.

Freud’s Psychosexual Stages

• Stages cover childhood and conflicts that lead to fixation:

  • Oral (0-1): Dependence through oral activities.

  • Anal (1-3): Control during toilet training.

  • Phallic (3-5): Gender identity and Oedipus/Electra complex.

  • Latency (5-6): Quiet period, developing defense mechanisms.

  • Genital (puberty onward): Focus on mature sexual relationships.

Erikson’s Psychosocial Stages

• Psychological conflicts at different ages defining development:

  • Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust

  • Early Childhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt

  • Preschool: Initiative vs. Guilt

  • Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion

  • Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation

  • Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation

Piaget's Cognitive Development Theory

• Cognitive Stages

  • Sensorimotor (0-2): Sensory and motor coordination, object permanence.

  • Pre-operational (2-7): Development of symbolic thought, egocentrism.

  • Concrete Operational (7-11): Logical reasoning with concrete objects.

  • Formal Operational (12+): Abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning.

Critiques of Piaget

• Developmental speed: Many children progress faster than Piaget suggested.

• Suspicions of language bias in testing.

Information Processing Model

• Suggests a continuous development of cognitive abilities rather than distinct stages.

Development of Moral Reasoning (Kohlberg)

• Stages:

  • Pre-conventional: Right/wrong based on punishment/reward.

  • Conventional: Adherence to societal norms.

  • Post-conventional: Personal principles take precedence over societal expectations.

Gender Development

• Concept of Gender

  • Socially defined norms versus biological attributes.

  • Identity develops around age 2-3 and solidifies through experiences.

Biopsychological Influences on Gender

• Biological factors like DNA, brain structure, and hormones may impact gender behavior.

Freud's View on Gender Development

• Concept of competition for parental affection: Boys compete with fathers, girls with mothers.

Social and Cognitive Perspectives on Gender

• Influence of societal norms and cognitive interpretations on behavior.

Gender-Schema Theory

• Internalization of societal gender messages informs behavior rules.