Developmental Psychology
Study of how behaviors and thoughts change over a lifetime.
Interconnected with concepts from other psychology chapters.
Nature vs. Nurture Debate
Investigates how much behaviors are influenced by genetics (nature) vs. learned experiences (nurture).
Chapter begins with genetic influences, then discusses acquired influences.
Cross-Sectional Research
Examines different age groups at a single point in time to identify age-related changes.
Example: Studying memory across age groups (10-19, 20-29, etc.).
Criticism: Historical events and cultural trends can affect results.
Longitudinal Research
Follows the same individuals over a prolonged period to observe changes.
Data collected at regular intervals (e.g., every five years).
Challenges: High costs and difficulties in tracking participants.
Innate Abilities and Traits
Genetic factors determine some characteristics (e.g., physical traits).
Prenatal environment crucial for development.
Teratogens: Harmful substances affecting fetal development.
Placenta's Role
Temporary organ filtering harmful substances, but certain teratogens can still enter.
Alcohol (Teratogen)
Small amounts can disrupt fetal brain development.
Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS): Malformed skulls and developmental disabilities.
Fetal Alcohol Effect: Less severe outcomes but still developmental challenges.
Psychoactive Drugs
Infants can be born addicted to drugs if mothers used them during pregnancy.
Possible severe withdrawal symptoms in newborns.
Reflexes
Inborn reflexes: rooting, sucking, grasping, Moro, Babinski.
Rooting Reflex: Baby turns head to stimulus on cheek.
Sucking Reflex: Baby attempts to suck on objects placed in mouth.
Grasping Reflex: Baby curls fingers around objects placed in palm.
Moro Reflex: Flings limbs when startled and retracts to make small.
Babinski Reflex: Big toe spreads when foot is stroked.
Taste and Vision
Babies have a preference for sweetness and initially poor eyesight (8-12 inches).
Visual improvement over time, with attraction to faces.
Hearing
Babies can hear sounds in the womb before birth.
Motor Control and Development Timeline
Development of coordination as neurons mature. Typical milestones:
Rolling over by 5.5 months
Standing by 8-9 months
Walking by 15 months
Imprinting (Konrad Lorenz)
Attachment formed during a critical period after birth.
Harry Harlow's Monkeys
Preference for comfort over food (soft versus wire mother).
Implications for understanding attachment and stress responses.
Types of Attachment
Secure (66%): Explores confidently, distressed by absence, seeks comfort upon return.
Avoidant (21%): Avoids closeness, does not seek comfort after separation.
Anxious/Ambivalent (12%): Shows distress during separation but resists comfort upon reunion.
Disorganized: Erratic relationships likely due to neglect or abuse.
Categories of Parenting Styles:
Permissive: Lacks consistent guidelines, rules are not enforced.
Authoritarian: Strict rules, heavy punishment, little reinforcement.
Authoritative: Balanced approach with reasonable expectations, praises as well as punishes.
Outcomes based on parenting style:
Authoritative homes lead to socially capable and academically successful children.
Permissive parenting linked to emotional control issues and dependency.
Authoritarian parents' children are often distrusting and withdrawn.
Stage Theories of Development
Continuous vs. discontinuous development explored.
Vygotsky's Zone of Proximal Development
Tasks a child can perform alone vs. with others' help.
Importance of "scaffolding" by parents/teachers.
Stages cover childhood and conflicts that lead to fixation:
Oral (0-1): Dependence through oral activities.
Anal (1-3): Control during toilet training.
Phallic (3-5): Gender identity and Oedipus/Electra complex.
Latency (5-6): Quiet period, developing defense mechanisms.
Genital (puberty onward): Focus on mature sexual relationships.
Psychological conflicts at different ages defining development:
Infancy: Trust vs. Mistrust
Early Childhood: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt
Preschool: Initiative vs. Guilt
Adolescence: Identity vs. Role Confusion
Young Adulthood: Intimacy vs. Isolation
Middle Adulthood: Generativity vs. Stagnation
Cognitive Stages
Sensorimotor (0-2): Sensory and motor coordination, object permanence.
Pre-operational (2-7): Development of symbolic thought, egocentrism.
Concrete Operational (7-11): Logical reasoning with concrete objects.
Formal Operational (12+): Abstract thought and hypothetical reasoning.
Developmental speed: Many children progress faster than Piaget suggested.
Suspicions of language bias in testing.
Suggests a continuous development of cognitive abilities rather than distinct stages.
Stages:
Pre-conventional: Right/wrong based on punishment/reward.
Conventional: Adherence to societal norms.
Post-conventional: Personal principles take precedence over societal expectations.
Concept of Gender
Socially defined norms versus biological attributes.
Identity develops around age 2-3 and solidifies through experiences.
Biological factors like DNA, brain structure, and hormones may impact gender behavior.
Concept of competition for parental affection: Boys compete with fathers, girls with mothers.
Influence of societal norms and cognitive interpretations on behavior.
Internalization of societal gender messages informs behavior rules.