my notes + vocab terms fed into chat gpt to teach. yay.
The rapid industrialization of Europe in the 19th century brought significant economic growth but also created widespread social problems. Harsh working conditions, low wages, and child labor led to increased social unrest, prompting various ideological, governmental, and collective responses.
The economic theories of Thomas Malthus and David Ricardo shaped early conservative responses to poverty. Malthus argued that population growth would outpace food supply, leading to inevitable suffering, while Ricardo's "iron law of wages" suggested that wages would always remain at subsistence levels. These views were used to justify inaction on economic inequality.
However, thinkers like John Stuart Mill advocated for liberalism, emphasizing individual rights, economic freedom, and social reforms. Meanwhile, socialism emerged as a response to the exploitation of workers. Utopian socialism, championed by figures like Louis Blanc, proposed cooperative societies where the government would guarantee jobs and fair wages. More radical movements later developed, including Marxist socialism, which saw class struggle as the key to social change.
Governments initially resisted reforms, favoring conservatism and seeking to maintain the status quo. The British government established workhouses, where the poor were forced to labor under harsh conditions. However, increasing public pressure led to prison reform and better police systems to manage growing urban populations.
Collective movements also gained momentum. Trade unions and workers' protests sought fair wages and labor rights. The rise of industrial cities, modernized by figures like Baron Haussmann in Paris, led to improved public infrastructure but also widened social inequalities.
In an age of rising nationalism, European states sought to balance revolutionary demands with political stability. The Concert of Europe, established after the Napoleonic Wars, aimed to suppress revolutions and maintain order.
The 1830 Revolutions/Revolts erupted in France, Belgium, Poland, and Italy, driven by demands for constitutional government and national independence. France's Charles X, a staunch ultraroyalist, attempted to curb freedoms with the July Ordinances, sparking the July Revolution and his abdication. His successor, Louis-Philippe, known as the "Citizen King," promoted moderate reforms but was overthrown in the Revolutions of 1848, which swept across Europe, temporarily weakening conservative governments.
In Italy, the Risorgimento movement sought national unification. Giuseppe Mazzini, an advocate for democracy, pushed for a united Italian republic. Eventually, figures like Count Camillo di Cavour and Giuseppe Garibaldi played crucial roles in achieving Italian unification through diplomacy and warfare.
Germany saw similar nationalist efforts. The Zollverein economic union helped lay the groundwork for unification under William I of Prussia. His chancellor, Otto von Bismarck, utilized realpolitik, prioritizing practical goals over ideology. His policies of iron and blood led to Bismarck’s Wars, which unified Germany and shifted the balance of power in Europe.
In Russia, the abolition of serfdom in 1861 under Tsar Alexander II was a major reform, though former serfs remained economically dependent. The creation of zemstvos provided limited local governance but did not satisfy calls for greater political freedom. Populism grew in response, advocating for peasant-led revolution, ultimately leading to radical movements like those responsible for Alexander II’s assassination.
European states pursued overseas dominance for economic, political, and ideological reasons. Trade, imperial competition, and industrial production fueled colonial expansion.
European conquest was often justified using Social Darwinism, which applied Darwin's theories to human societies, arguing that stronger nations had the right to dominate weaker ones. This belief was closely tied to the concept of the "white man's burden", the idea that Europeans had a moral duty to "civilize" non-European peoples. Zionism, led by Theodor Herzl, emerged in response to anti-Semitism and violent pogroms, highlighting the racial and religious tensions of the era.
The Berlin Conference (1884–1885) formalized European imperialism, dividing Africa among European powers. Britain, for instance, controlled the Belgian Congo, while figures like Cecil Rhodes expanded British influence in South Africa, leading to conflicts like the Boer War.
In Asia, Britain’s expansion into China sparked conflicts such as the Opium War and the Sepoy Rebellion, both of which revealed resistance to European imperial control. The presence of the "Boxers" in China symbolized nationalist opposition to foreign influence.
European dominance was facilitated by technologies like quinine, which helped combat malaria, and the machine gun, which gave European armies a military advantage. Industrialization also linked Europe to global markets, fueling its economic strength.
The 19th century saw tension between scientific objectivity and individual artistic expression.
The scientific revolution and positivist approaches influenced governance, public health, and technology. Thinkers sought to apply reason to social problems, with debates over the role of religion in political life. This period also saw debates on gender roles, with movements advocating for "new women", challenging traditional expectations.
While Impressionism and Post-Impressionism reflected modernity through light and color, Cubism, pioneered by Pablo Picasso, rejected traditional perspectives. Artists like Claude Monet, Edgar Degas, and Vincent van Gogh experimented with new styles. Art Nouveau embraced organic forms, blending art with architecture.
The 19th century was a period of transformation in Europe. Industrialization reshaped economies, leading to social inequality and prompting responses from socialists, liberals, and governments. Nationalism fueled revolutions, while leaders like Bismarck and Garibaldi reshaped the political map. Imperialism intensified global conflicts, justified by Social Darwinism and economic competition. Cultural changes reflected tensions between tradition and modernity, with artists and intellectuals challenging societal norms. These forces set the stage for the global conflicts and social changes of the 20th century.