Chapter 5-7 Sociology

• Socialization: the process through which people are taught to be proficient member of society by describing the way that people come to understand societal norms/expectations, to accept society's beliefs and to be aware of societal values 

TYPES OF SOCIALIZATION 

• Biological 

  • Age, gender, genetics 

  • Physiological reactions 

  • Tissue health 

• Psychological 

  • Mental health 

  • Emotional health 

  • Beliefs & expectations 

• Sociological 

  • Interpersonal relationships 

  • Social support dynamics 

  • Socioeconomics 

SIGMUND FREUD'S THEORY OF SELF-DEVELOPMENT 

• Believed personality developed through a series of childhood stages in which the pleasure-seeking energies of the id become focused on certain erogenous areas 

• ID 

  • Urges, pleasure principle 

  • newborns 

• EGO 

  • Learn to control urges like a temper or bladder control 

• SUPEREGO 

  • Right vs wrong 

  • Self-punishment 

ERIK ERICKSON'S EIGHT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

• Believed that the personality developed throughout a person's lifetime, and never truly was finished 

1. Infancy (0-18 months): trust vs mistrust: if needs are dependable met, infants develop a sense of basic trust 

2. 18 months- 3 years: autonomy vs shame/doubt: toddlers learn to exercise will and do things for themselves, or they doubt their ability 

3. 3-5 years: initiative vs guilt: preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or they feel guilty about efforts to be independent 

4. 5-13 years: industry vs inferiority: children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks, or they feel inferior 

5. 13-21 years: identity vs confusion: teens work at refining a sense of self by testing roles and then integrating them to form a single identify or they become confused about who they are 

6. 21-39 years: intimacy vs isolation: young adults struggle to form close relationships and to gain the capacity for intimate love, or the feel socially isolated 

7. 40-65 years: generativity vs stagnation: middle-aged discover a sense of contributing to the world, usually through family and work, or they may feel a lack of purpose 

8. 65-death: integrity vs despair: when reflecting on their life, the older adult may feel a sense of satisfaction or failure 

JEAN PIAGET 

• Psychologist that focused on the role of social interactions in child development 

• Recognized that the development of self-evolved through a negotiation between the world that exists as it in experienced socially 

• Types 

  • Sensorimoter- birth to 18-24 months 

    • Object permanence 

  • Preoperational- 2-7 years 

    • Symbolic thought 

  • Concrete operational- 7-11 years 

    • Logical thought 

  • Formal operational- adolescence to adulthood 

    • Scientific reasoning 

GEORGE HERBERT MEAD 

• In order to engage in this process of "self" an individual must be able to view themselves through the eyes of others. We are not born with that ability 

• Through socialization we learn to put ourselves in someone else's shoes and look at the world from their view 

• Self refers to person's distinct identity that is developed through social interaction 

• Generalized other: common behavioral expectations of general society 

MEAD STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT 

1. Preparatory stage: child imitates the behavior of others 

2. Play stage: child begins to formulate role expectations: playing house, cops and robbers, etc. 

3. Game stage: child learns there are rules that specify the proper and correct relationship among the players 

KOHLBERG'S IDEAS ABOUT MORAL DEVELOPMENT 

• Moral development: way people learn what society considers to be "good" and bad", important for a smoothly functioning society 

• 3 stages: 

  • Preconvention: children experience only through their senses 

  • Conventional: teens and young adults become more aware of others' feelings and take them into account 

  • Postconvention: believe in morality in abstract or universal terms outside of one-to-one relationships 

• States that our ethical behavior stems from our ability to reason 

• This scale illustrates how as humans we justify our behavior 

• 6 stages of moral development 

1. Obedience  

2. Self-interest  

3. Social acceptance 

4. Law 

5. Greater good 

6. Universal ethical principles 

GILLIGAN'S THEORY OF MORAL DEVELOPMENT AND GENDER 

• Researched young children of different genders 

  • Boys exhibited morality based on justice- focusing on rules and laws 

  • Girls exhibited a caring and understanding perspective- focusing on empathy and reasons for bad behavior 

• While the study has been criticized for its sample size, Gilligan did demonstrate limitations of earlier work. For example, she reacted to Kohlberg's focus of boys and men instead of other genders 

• Levels of moral development 

1. Individual survival 

   1. Selfish, egocentric 

2. Care and responsibility for others 

   1. Self-sacrificing, altruistic acts 

3. Balance of care for self and others 

   1. Recognized and legitimize imp. Of own needs as well as others 

NATURE VS NURTURE 

• Nurture: the relationships and caring that surround us that makes us who we are 

  • Genetic factors like eye color, hair color and blood group 

• Nature: our genetics (temperaments, interests, and talents) are setup before birth make us who we are, rather than the environment around us 

  • Environmental factors like diseases, accent, weight 

WHY SOCIALIZATION IS IMPORTANT 

• They're critical both to individuals and the societies in which they live 

• Illustrates how completely intertwined human beings and their social worlds 

• First through teaching culture to new members that a society perpetuates itself 

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION 

• Family 

  • First and most important agent 

  • Primary socializer of young children 

  • Immediate and extended family 

  • Historical and societal context impacts the way a child is raised 

  • Socioeconomic status and related circumstances 

  • Race, religion, ethnicity, national origin, other elements of family background affect how people within the family of socialized 

• Peer group 

  • Composed of individuals of roughly equal age and similar social characteristics 

  • Much pressure to conform 

• School 

  • Between 5-18 students spend 30-49 weeks a year in school 

  • Teachers become models 

  • Hidden curriculum: informal teaching done by schools that reinforce societal norms 

• Mass media 

  • Large scale communication the teaches audiences with no personal contact 

  • Books, films, internet, magazines, newspapers, radio and tv 

PRINCESS EFFECT 

• Disney princess show expectations about gender for boys and girls 

FAMILY AS AGENT OF SOCIOLIZATION 

• Family is the most important agent of socialization in all societies 

  • Families use positive and negative sanctions to help teach right from wrong 

  • Number of children in a household and birth order can influence individual socializations 

  • Family socialization differs by culture 

AGENTS OF SOCIALIZATION 

• Peer group 

  • Increasingly assume the role of Mead's significant others 

  • Can ease the transition to adult responsibilities 

  • Can encourage children to honor or violate cultural norms and values 

  • Can be a source of harassment as well as support 

• Mass media and technology 

  • 53% of all children ages 12-18 years have their own televisions 

  • Tv permits imitation and role playing but does not encourage more complex forms of learning 

  • Technology is socializing families into multitasking as the social norm 

• Religion 

  • Ideas of right and wrong 

  • Dress, speech, manners, etc. 

  • Morals of religious people effect everyone 

  • Influences extend to many areas of our lives 

SOCIALIZATION ACROSS LIFE COURSE 

• Anticipatory socialization: way adults prepare for future life roles 

• Age-related transition points: getting a first job, having a child, retiring, etc. 

ANTICIPATORY SOCIALIZATION 

• Preparing yourself to take on new norms/values, behaviors 

• Done voluntarily 

• Done from one stage of one's life to the next 

  • Ex: 

    • What do you need before going to college? 

    • What do you need before you get married? 

    • What changes occur before you get your first job? 

POST-HIGH SCHOOL ACTIVITIES AROUND THE WORLD 

• In U.S. 

  • 2/3 of HS grads enroll in college before age 24 

  • About 1/3 of that same population is also in the work force 

  • About 69% of the college attendees attend college immediately after HS 

• In other countries 

  • Only 25% of students enroll in college immediately 

  • Many take gap years or other interim periods 

  • Some require military service 

RESOCIALIZATION 

• Resocialization: old behaviors that were helpful in a pervious role and removed because they are no longer of use, and new relevant behaviors take their place 

  • A break with past experiences and the learning of new values and norms 

• Degradation ceremony: new members of institution lose the aspects of their old identity and are given new identities 

• Occur in obvious places like the military or sometimes joining a religious order or group 

• Total institutions are concerned with resocializing their members 

• Most total institutions are concerned with changing an individual's personality and behavior 

• People in total institutions are denied freedoms enjoyed by the outside world 

DEGRADATION CEREMONY 

• Public attempts to inflict identity alteration 

• Involves destroying the offender's identity and transforming it into a low social type 

• Garfinkel describes a degradation ceremony as an attempt to transform an individual's total identity into an identity lower in the group's scheme of social types 

• He says individuals who are being degraded must be placed outside the everydy moral order and defined as a threat to that order 

• Some degradation of status inflicted on the accused by one social group may actually lead to rewards by another group 

GROUPS AND ORGANIZATIONS 

• Tea Party 

  • Originated with the general principles of lowering taxes and limiting government debt 

  • Formed partly in response to bail-outs and other economic rescue programs following 2008 Recession; gained significant strength in opposing the Affordable Cre Act 

  • Not a formal political party but does have structure, units, and affiliated members; exhibited great influence on Republican party and therefore on the nation 

• MeToo 

  • Coined by Tarana Burke to offer support and awareness for women who had experienced harassment 

  • Reused on social media reference by Alyssa Milano, in order to build solidarity and demonstrate the extent of harassment and assault 

  • Signify the rising awareness of and attention to sexual harassment of women in many professions, particularly the entertainment industry 

DEFINING GROUPS 

• Group- any collection of at least two people who interact with some frequency and who share some sense of aligned identity 

• Aggregate- collection of people who exist in the same place at the same time, but who don't interact or share a sense of identity 

• Category- people who share similar characteristics but who are not connected in any way 

TYPES OF GROUPS 

• Primary group- small, informal groups of people who are closest to us; typically longer term relationships 

• Secondary group- larger group, less personal, may be temporary 

• Expressive function- group function that serves an emotional need 

• Instrumental function- being oriented toward a task or goal 

• Primary groups typically serve expressive functions, and secondary groups typically serve instrumental functions. But the definitions are not strict 

• For ex: a group of students at a college are generally considered a secondary group, but experiences can make them into a primary group 

IN-GROUPS AND OUT-GROUPS 

• In-group- a group a person belongs to and feels is an integral part of their identity 

• Out-group- a group of which an individual is not a member 

  • In-groups can sometimes refer to theirs as inferior, which may lead to insults, bullying, ethnocentrism, racism, etc. 

  • People may feel excluded or "othered" from a group through no fault of the group's own 

• Some in-group status is dictated and formalized, such as earning a place on a team or a job promotion. Individual would have gotten the promotion, they would have gained a desire in-group (in addition to higher pay) 

REFERENCE GROUPS 

• Reference groups- refers to groups to which individuals compare themselves 

• People can have more than one reference group at the same time: 

  • Peers 

  • Family 

  • Idols or public figures (ex: entertainers, activists, writers, athletes) 

  • Non-family connections like church leaders or educators 

• Sometimes these groups pride conflicting influences or characteristics 

GROUP SIZE AND IMPACTS 

• Dyad- two member group 

  • Dyads can be equal opposing sides 

  • If a dyad breaks the group is over 

• Triad- three member group 

  • Can lead two people to override the other person, may make one person feel excluded, or may offer even more support and perspective 

  • If one person leaves the triad, ti can continue as a dyad 

LEADERSHIP 

• Leadership function- main focus or goal of a leader 

• Instrumental leader- leader who is goal oriented with a primary focus on accomplishing tasks 

• Expressive leader- leader who is concerned with process and with ensuring everyone's emotional wellbeing 

• Leadership style- style a leader uses to achieve goals or elicit action from group members 

• Democratic leaders- leaders who encourage group participation and consensus- building before moving into action 

• Laissez-Faire Leaders- hands-off leaders who allow members of the group to make their own decisions 

• Authoritarian leaders- leaders who issues orders and assign tasks 

CONFORMITY 

• Conformity- extent to which and individual complies with group or societal norms 

  • People who don't conform are usually very easy to notice (depending the size of the group and the degree of nonconformity) 

  • Pressure to conform can lead people to do or say things they wouldn't normally, and even to do things they know are wrong 

• Simon Asch's experiment resulted in people purposely providing incorrect answers to a relatively easy and non-controversial question. They did so in order to conform 

• Bystander effect- situation in which people are less likely to interfere during an emergency or when a social nor is being violated if there are others around 

WOMEN POLITICAL CANDIDATES 

• U.S. citizens (including women) indicate that they prefer masculine qualities in presidents 

• In addition, women face the "likeability trap" 

  • Women who rank low in "feminine qualities" rank lower in likeability. But men who rank low on the same qualities do not rank lower in likeability 

• Women also face the "double bind" 

  • Women who exhibit strong competence are generally less well-liked 

  • But people demand competence of their leaders 

  • This seeming contradiction makes clear who women generally face a more difficult challenge in winning elections 

FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS 

• Formal organizations- large, impersonal organizations 

• Bureaucracies- formal organizations characterized by a hierarchy of authority, a clear division of labor, explicit rules, and impersonality 

• Normative/voluntary organizations- organizations that people join to pursue shared interests or because they provide some intangible rewards 

• Coercive organization- organizations that people do not voluntarily join, such as prison or a mental hospital 

• Total institution- organization in which participants live a controlled lifestyle and in which total resocialization occurs 

• Utilitarian organization- organizations that are joined to fill a specific material need 

TYPES OF FORMAL ORGANIZATIONS 

• Utilitarian organization- one that pays people for their efforts 

• Normative organization- one that pursues some goal believed to be morally worthwhile 

• Coercive organization- one that forces people to join 

BUREAUCRACIES 

• Hierarchy of authority- clear chain of command found in a bureaucracy 

• Clear division of labor- fact that each individual in a bureaucracy has a specialized task to perform 

• Explicit rules- types of rules in a bureaucracy; rules that are outlined, recorded and standardized 

• Impersonality- the removal of personal feelings from a professional situation (that's policy) 

• Meritocracy- bureaucracy where membership and advancement is based on merit- proven and documented skills 

• Iron rule of oligarchy- theory that an organization is ruled by a few elites rather through collaboration 

DIVISON OF LABOR 

1. Executive 

   1. Policy and planning 

      1. Strategic planning 

         1. Special projects 

      2. Policy development 

         1. Legislative relations 

   2. Operations 

      1. Regional management 

         1. Office staffing 

         2. Maintenance 

• Specialization 

• Separation of roles and duties 

• "higher" authority is not authorized to take over the business of the "lower" 

MACDONALDIZATION 

• Application of the fast-food, mass- production or big-box store model to other aspects of society 

• Provides greater profits due to monitoring, predictability and efficiency 

• In education: one size fits all, nationalized programs such as Common Core and No Child Left Behind are met with intense scrutiny and resistance from parents, states and educators 

• In healthcare: mergers off providers and switchover from small doctor's offices to larger systems and urgent care centers. Insurance companies dictate policy and practice, and personalized care seems rarer 

• "DeMacdonaldization": not an accepted term, but a logical counterpoint 

  • Buy local/small business initiative 

  • In education, more recent laws put more control to states/districts 

  • Healthcare, however, might not be changing 

MCDONALDIZATION 6: SUBSTITUTION O FNONHUMAN TECHNOLOGY 

• To elimintate unforeseen human behavior 

• Emphasis on nonhuman technology 

  • Ex: drink dispensers 

• Taking of skills away from people 

• Trade-off: 

  • The society is dehumanized 

  • People are not allowed to design methods to solve problems 

  • DEVIANCE: DEFINITIONS AND CONTEXTS 

    • Deviance- violation of contextual, cultural, or social norms 

    • May be a considered "in the eye of the beholder" or relative 

    • Certain behaviors or actions are never acceptable, but many actions may be deviant in some environments and accepted in others 

      • Speaking loudly and telling jokes during a religious service: usually deviant 

      • Speaking loudly and telling jokes at the gathering after the service: usually okay 

    • May or may not equate with laws or formal rules 

     

    CHANGING PERCEPTIONS OF DEVIANCE 

    • Marijuana: 

      • Historically, not criminalized or significantly controlled in the U.S. 

      • With the arrival or immigrants from Mexico and other Spanish speaking countries, the substance was associated with deviant behavior. Myths and rumors related marijuana use to crime and especially risk to American youth 

      • Widely criminalized by the 1930s by the War of Drugs it lead to prosecution and incarceration of many Americans 

      • \has been used by many people in power and is also known as a significant medical resource, Marijana is being approved as a significant medical resource, marijuana is being approved for medical and/or recreational use in many states 

    • LGBTQ people and relationships: 

      • Same-sex intimacy and sexual acts were criminalized by all states until the 60s and 70s. Criminalization stood in some states until a 2003 Supreme Court decision 

      • Other laws made it illegal for people to dress in a manner that didn't align with their sex assigned at birth 

      • These laws and institutional discrimiatnion against LGBTQ people led to mistreatment and violations of rights 

        • Gay men who served in WWII were dishonorably discharged, leaving them ineligible for benefits nad unable to build on their service for their careers 

        • LGBTQ people were targeted by counterintelligence for being risks for Soviet infiltration 

        • LGBTQ people, especailly transgender people, were often brutalized and humiliated by police. For example police would visually confirm someone's gender in public 

        • Despite their oppression, LGBTQ people and their aliies continually pushed for rights 

        • In 1973, the APA changed its classification of homosexuality so that it no longer is considered a disorder 

          • Most recently the APA has been more supportive of LGBTQ rights, such as opposing "conversion therapy" for people and doing more to support the transgender community 

        • Repeal of the defense of marriage act made same sex marriage legal across the US and the 2020 supreme court decision effectively made it illegal to discriminate against LGBTQ people in the workplace 

     

    SITUATIONAL PERCEPTIONS OF DEVIANCE: LEGALITY & ACCEPTANCE OF GAMBLING 

    • Gambling is excess is typically seen as deviant 

    • But gambling on a smaller scale is generally not seen as deviant 

    • However, gambling in many forms were severaly restricted in the US. It was legal in certain areas and most of those had limitations and careful monitoring 

     

    SOCIAL CONTROL 

    • Social control- regulation and enforcement of norms 

    • Social order- arrangement of practices and behaviors on which society's members base their daily lives 

    • Sanctions- means of enforcing rules 

    • Positive sanctions- rewards given for conforming to norms 

    • Negative sanctions- punishments for violating the norms 

    • Informal sanctions- sanctions that occur in face-to-face interactions 

    • Formal sanctions- sanctions that are officially recognized and enforced 

     

    FUNCTIONALISM- EMILE DURKHEIM: DEVIANCE 

    • Deviance can help society progress 

      • Challenges people's current views 

      • Reaffirm social norms through punishment 

      • Can lead to societal cohesiveness through the "collective consciousness" 

     

    ROBERT MERTON: STRAIN THEORY 

    • Strain theory- theory that addresses the relationship between having socially acceptable goals and having socially acceptable means to reach those goals 

      • Conformity- conform choose not the deviate. Pursue their goals to the extent that they can through socially accepted means 

      • Innovation- innovate pursue goals they cannot reach through legitimate means by instead using criminal or deviant means 

      • Ritualism- ritualize lower their goals until they can reach them through socially acceptable ways. Members of society focus on conformity rather than attaining a distant dream 

      • Retreatism- others retreat ad reject society's goals and means 

      • Rebellion- handful of people rebel and replace a society's goals and means with their own 

     

    FUNCTIONALISM: SOCIAL DISORGANIZATION THEORY 

    • Social disorganization theory- theory that asserts crime occurs in communities with weak social ties and the absence of social control 

    • Stresses nurture over nature- a person isn't born as someone who will commit crimes but becomes one over time, often based on factors in their social environment 

    • Robert Sampson and Byron Groves found that poverty and family disruption is given localities had a strong positive correlation with social disorganization 

    • This is why efforts to reduce crime and improove environments include education, community engagement, mental healthcare, and financial support 

      • Sometimes, this can be negative consequences such as rising cost of living for residents (gentrification) 

      • Also explain why some cities/states allow parents to send their children to school in other neighborhoods- for equality 

     

    CONFLICT THEORY 

    • Marx's conflict theory- social control is directly affected by the strength of social bonds and the deviance results from a feeling of disconnection from society 

    • C Right Mill's power elite- decisions regarding deviance and crime are made small group of wealthy and influential people at the top of society who hold the power and resources 

     

    SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM: LABELING THEORY 

    • Labeling theory- ascribing of a deviant behavior to another person by members of society 

    • Primary deviance- violation of norms that does not result in any long-term effects on the individual's self-image or interactions with others 

    Secondary deviance- deviance that occurs when a person's self-concept and behavior begin to change after his or her actions are labeled as deviant by members of society 

    • Master status- label that describes the chief characteristic of an individual 

     

    TECHNIQUES OF NEUTRALIZATION 

    • Sykes and Matza (1957) studied teen boys who had been labeled as junenile delinquents to see how they either embraced or denied their labels: 

      • Denial of Responsibility: rejecting the label for denying responsibility for the action 

      • Denial of Injury: person doesn't see their actions as significant because no one was hurt 

      • Denial of the Victim: if there is no victim there's no crime 

      • Condemnation of the Condemners: an effect to "turn it around on" accusers or oversight by blaming them 

      • Appeal to a Higher Authority: claim that the actions were for a higher purpose 

     

    FELONY DISENFRANCHISEMENT AND THE RIGHT TO VOTE 

    • Many states practice some form of disenfranchisement, which is the prohibition or restriction of people from voting after having committed certain crimes 

      • Only 2 states allow everyone to vote no matter what their status regarding conviction or incarceration. Meaning they even people who are currently incarcerated can vote 

      • Only 2 states completely permanantely prohibit voting by every person with a felony conviction from voting 

      • Other 46 states have "in between" 

     

    CRIME AND THE LAW 

    • Crime- behavior that violates official law and is punishable through formal sanctions 

    • Legal codes- codes that maintain formal social control through laws 

    • Distinguishing between deviance and crime: 

      • Walking to class backward is a deviant behavior 

      • Driving with a blood alcohol percentage over the state's limit is a acrime 

    • Remember the relativism: 

      • Earlier we noted that all deviance isn't bad. Some crime as well, may not be necessarily "bad" 

        • Civil Rights activists violated both norms and laws 

      • Some laws themselves may be considered deviant by some members of society 

     

    TYPES OF CRIME 

    • Violent crimes- crimes based on the use of force or the threat of fore 

    • Nonviolent crime- crimes that involve the destruction or theft of property but don’t use force or the threat of force 

    • Street crime- crime committed by average people against other people or organizations, usually in public spaces 

    • Corporate crime- crime committed by workers in a business environment or something by people acting in a similar manner or on their behalf 

    • Victimless crimes- activities against the law, but that do not result in injury to any individual other than the person who engages in them 

      • Some people view low-stakes illegal gambling as a victimless crime 

     

    CRIME STATISTICS 

    • 17000 individual law enforcement organization such as city and town police department capture their own data 

    • States are required to provide data for the National Incident-Based Reporting System which captures more detailed information on each crime, including time of day, location, and other contexts 

    • All reports vary based on police-reported crimes 

    • National crime victimization survey is a self –report study which captures voluntary information through surveys and related methods 

     

    CRIMINAL JUSTICE SYSTEM 

    • Police and law Enforcment agencies are a civil force in charge of regulating laws and public order at a federal, state or community level 

      • Us has no federal police. Force but national agencies such as the FBI drug enforcement agency, bureau of alcohol, Tabacco and firearms and other organizations investigate and mitigate crime 

      • State and local forces coexist with specific jurisdiction, and also mix in sheriff's departments, park police, etc. 

    • Court- a system that has the authority to make decisions based on law 

      • Federal court judges are appointed by the president and approved by the senate. They deal with federal crimes, trade issues, interstate issues and also the proper application of law itself 

      • State courts handle in-state matters and are divided by several levels 

      • Tribal courts manage and decide legal dispute sand criminal matters on Native American tribal lands 

    • Corrections system- supervise individuals who have been arrested, convicted and sentenced for a criminal offense, plus people detained while awaiting hearings, trails or other procedures 

    • Consists of local facilities such as jails, as well as state and federal facilities 

    • People involved with the corrections system include people who are incarcerated (meaning they are forced to remain in a facility) as well as people who have parole or prohibition status