Copy_20of_20exam2-guide.pdf

Mind-Body Unit

Definitions of Dualism and Monism

• Dualism: The view that mind and body are distinct entities, implying the body's reliance on the mind for existence.

• Monism: The proposition that mind and body are unified; physical processes in the brain lead to emotions and identity.

The Placebo Effect

• The placebo effect illustrates how expectations can impact physiological responses.

• Experimental Evidence: In an experiment, subjects received the same cream on two different parts of their arm, one labeled as a painkiller and the other as a control. Despite both being identical, those believing they received the painkiller reported lower pain levels and showed decreased spinal cord activity on fMRI scans.

Biological, Cognitive, and Social Functions of Emotions

• Biological Functions: Includes responses like fight or flight, where emotions result in physiological responses such as increased heart rate and muscle tension.

• Cognitive Functions: Emotions influence mental processes like perception and memory. For example, anxiety may heighten awareness of potential threats, while regret shapes future decision-making.

• Social Functions: Emotions help communicate our feelings to others, as in using embarrassment to adjust social behavior.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

• The ANS manages involuntary bodily functions such as heart rate and digestion. It has two branches:

  • Parasympathetic: Promotes rest and relaxation, conserving energy.

  • Sympathetic: Activates the fight or flight response, preparing the body for action.

Theories of Emotion

James-Lange Theory

• Suggests emotions arise from physiological responses (e.g., feeling fear after the body reacts to a scary stimulus).

• Critiques: This theory overlooks the variability of emotional responses unrelated to physical changes.

Schachter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

• Proposes emotions are determined by the combination of physiological arousal and cognitive interpretation (environmental cues influence emotional labeling).

  • Example: In a dark alley, a racing heart is interpreted as fear.

Consequences of Stress Response

• Short-term: Immediate physical reactions prepare the body for threats (e.g., increased heart rate).

• Long-term: Prolonged stress can lead to serious health issues like heart disease and diminished mental health.

Stress and Performance Relationship

• Moderate stress can enhance focus and motivation, but excessive stress can become toxic and detrimental to health and performance.

Biopsychosocial Model of Stress Management

• Stress management includes a blend of biological, psychological, and social factors.

  • Biological: Coping strategies, medications.

  • Social: Support systems, emotional disclosures.

  • Psychological: Mindfulness, optimism, effective coping strategies.

• Exercise & Mindfulness: Both have been shown to reduce stress and anxiety through physiological and psychological means.

Neurons and Nervous System Unit

What are Neurons?

• Neurons are specialized cells that transmit signals throughout the body, allowing communication between the brain and spinal cord.

• The adult brain contains about 100 billion neurons.

Types of Neurons

• Motor Neurons: Control muscle movement by sending commands from the brain.

• Sensory Neurons: Respond to external stimuli and transmit sensory information to the central nervous system (CNS).

• Interneurons: Connect motor and sensory neurons to formulate complex responses.

Parts of the Neuron

• Cell Body (Soma): Contains nucleus and maintains neuron structure.

• Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons.

• Axon: Conducts action potentials away from the cell body.

• Myelin Sheath: Insulates axons, speeding impulse transmission.

• Axon Terminal: Releases neurotransmitters to signal neighboring neurons.

Action Potential

• A fleeting electrical signal indicating neuron activation.

• More intense stimuli result in more frequent action potentials.

Steps of Neural Communication

1. Action potential reaches the axon terminal.

2. Neurotransmitters are released into the synapse.

3. Neurotransmitters bind to receptors on the postsynaptic neuron.

4. Adequate binding prompts the postsynaptic neuron to fire an action potential.

5. Neurotransmitter action is halted by enzymes or reuptake mechanisms.

Agonists vs. Antagonists

• Agonists: Enhance the effects of neurotransmitters.

• Antagonists: Inhibit neurotransmitter effects.

Nervous System Overview

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Comprising the brain and spinal cord, governs most bodily functions.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Represents nerves outside the CNS, managing involuntary actions.

Key Brain Regions Related to Emotion and Function

• Brainstem: Controls essential life functions (heart rate, breathing).

• Thalamus: Relay center for sensory and motor information.

• Spinal Cord: Connects the brain to the body; sends commands and receives sensory input.

• Cerebellum: Regulates coordination and balance.

• Hippocampus: Critical for memory formation.

• Amygdala: Central to emotional processing.

• Frontal Lobe: Governs decision-making and personality.

• Parietal Lobe: Integrates sensory information.

• Occipital Lobe: Handles visual processing.

• Temporal Lobe: Involved in auditory processing and memory.

Evolutionary Organization of the Brain

• Human behavior and cognition are shaped by evolutionary adaptations significant for survival and reproduction.

Emotion Processing and Recognition

• Fusiform Gyrus: Crucial for facial recognition.

• Prosopagnosia: Difficulty recognizing faces due to fusiform gyrus damage, leading to social anxiety.

• Capgras Syndrome: People believe loved ones are imposters due to brain connection disruptions.

Lateralization of Brain Functions

• Left Hemisphere: Specializes in language production.

• Split Brain Patients: Experience communication difficulties due to damage to the corpus callosum, often resulting from epilepsy treatment.

Sensation and Perception

Definitions

• Sensation: Detection of stimuli through sensory organs.

• Perception: Interpretation of sensory information for comprehension of the environment.

• Difference: Sensation is purely physical reception, while perception is cognitive processing.

Evidence for Blindsight

• Blindsight refers to the ability to process visual stimuli without conscious awareness, often linked to damage in the visual cortex (V1).

Transduction and Gustatory Transduction

• Transduction: Conversion of a physical stimulus to a neural signal.

• Gustatory Transduction: Transforming chemical molecules into taste perception.

Taste Pathway

• Taste signals travel from receptors to the thalamus, culminating in the primary gustatory cortex.

Physical Stimuli for Different Senses

• Vision: Light waves

• Sound: Sound waves

• Taste: Food molecules

• Touch: Pressure

• Smell: Odorant molecules

Pupil Function and Light Adaptation

• The pupil adjusts in size based on light levels, facilitating optimal light intake for vision.

Rods vs. Cones in Vision

• Rods: Sensitive to low light, responsible for night vision, no color detection, located on the periphery.

• Cones: Function in bright light, essential for color vision and detail, concentrated in the fovea.

Experience and Perception

• Experimental evidence indicates that prior experiences influence perception, demonstrated through ambiguous image interpretation by different groups.

Color Constancy

• The ability to perceive consistent colors across varied lighting conditions, aiding in object recognition.

Illusions as Principled Mistakes

• Illusions arise from misinterpretations based on past experiences, leading to incorrect assumptions in perception.

Color Vision Perception

• Perception differences in the dress (black/blue vs. white/gold) stem from assumptions about lighting conditions affecting color interpretation.

Causes of Colorblindness

• Commonly genetic, disproportionately affecting males; may result from eye damage or medication.

Psychopathology and Treatment

Atypicality in Mental Health

• Atypicality is challenging to define, given the subjective nature of mental illness and culturally specific criteria.

DSM-5 Overview

• The DSM-5 provides standardized diagnostic criteria but lacks treatment guidelines and explanatory power.

Standard Diagnostic Criteria Benefits

• Ensures consistency in communication and diagnosis across clinicians.

Polythetic Nature of Diagnoses

• Multiple combinations of symptoms can lead to the same diagnosis.

Categorical Nature of Diagnoses

• Many mental disorders are classified as present or absent, lacking a spectrum, which can reflect societal biases.

Bias in Diagnosis

• Disparities exist in diagnoses among racial and ethnic groups, affecting treatment accessibility and fairness.

Diathesis-Stress Model

• Interaction between genetic predisposition and environmental factors influences the onset of mental illness.

Symptoms of Schizophrenia

• Hallucinations, delusions, disorganized behavior and speech.

Genetic Component of Schizophrenia

• Evidence from twin studies indicates higher concordance rates in identical twins, but not absolute, suggesting environmental influences.

Environmental Influences on Schizophrenia

• Factors like maternal health, childhood trauma, and environmental toxins increase susceptibility.

Depression in Twin Studies

• Greater incidence of depression in identical twins compared to fraternal twins, indicating a genetic link.

Types of Psychotherapy

• Psychoanalytic Therapy: Focuses on uncovering repressed feelings and thoughts.

• Humanistic Therapy: Centers on interpersonal relationships and personal growth.

• Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy (CBT): Aims to reformulate negative thought patterns.

Psychoanalytic Approach Considerations

• Often criticized for lack of empirical evidence and subjective interpretations.

Antidepressants: Benefits and Limitations

• Generally effective in alleviating depression but come with individual variability in response and potential side effects.

Physiological Correlates of Schizophrenia

• Larger ventricles in individuals with schizophrenia, but not diagnostic criteria.

Treatment Additivity

• The concept that the combined effects of therapy and medication are superior to either alone.