Data Collection Lecture Notes

Data Collection

Introduction

• Data collection is a broad process that includes:
  • Ethical considerations
  • Sampling strategy
  • Data collection methods
  • Recording information
  • Field issues
  • Data storage

The Data Collection Circle

• Qualitative researchers should view data collection as interconnected steps rather than a linear process.

Step 1: Ethical Considerations for Data Collection

• Ethical issues are critical in qualitative research.
• Researchers may need to obtain permission from institutional review boards or ethics committees.
• Three key principles:
  • Respect for individuals: privacy, informed consent, voluntary participation.
  • Welfare: minimizing harm and mutual benefits.
  • Justice: treating participants fairly and inclusively.

Scenario: Studying the experiences of domestic workers

1. Informed consent and privacy
   • Some employees may fear employer retaliation.
   • Researchers must ensure anonymity (pseudonyms).
   • Participants must be informed about the purpose of the study and the right to withdraw at any time.
2. Minimizing harm and mutual benefits
   • If workers disclose exploitative conditions, researchers must ensure not to expose them to risk.
   • Researchers may provide information on workers' rights or connect them to support organizations.
3. Handling sensitive information
   • If a participant shares details “off the record” about workplace abuse but does not want it included in the study, the researcher must respect this request and avoid using sensitive disclosures without consent.
4. Navigating ethical dilemmas
   • If a worker reveals a plan for a labor strike that could impact public safety, the researcher must balance confidentiality with ethical responsibility.
5. Cultural sensitivity and fair representation
   • Researchers must be mindful of cultural norms and ensure that participants’ perspectives are accurately represented, avoiding imposition of their own biases or misinterpreting experiences.

Step 2: Locating Sites or Individuals

• Determining a site or individual to study depends on the research approach.

1. Narrative Study
   • Example: Studying resilience in athletes by interviewing a retired Olympic swimmer about their struggles and achievements.
   • Note: the individual must be accessible and willing to share their stories.
2. Phenomenology
   • Example: Studying the experience of grief by interviewing those who have lost a loved one in the past five years.
   • Note: participants must have firsthand experience of the phenomenon and are able to share their experience.
3. Grounded Theory
   • Example: Studying career transitions by interviewing professionals from different industries who have switched careers.
   • Note: Participants should have experienced the process being studied, and their diverse perspectives help develop categories in data analysis.
4. Ethnography
   • Example: Studying workplace culture in a hospital by observing and interacting with nurses and doctors in a specific department.
   • Note: The researcher should immerse themselves in the cultural group to understand shared values and beliefs.
5. Case Study
   • Example: A study on leadership in startups may focus on three different startup founders and how they manage their teams. A single case (one founder) or multiple cases (several founders) can be studied.

Step 3: Access and Rapport

• Gaining access and building rapport is crucial in qualitative research.
• Begin by gaining institutional approval (if needed) to ensure ethical treatment of research subjects.
• Next, obtain participant consent.
• Depending on the topic, the use of a gatekeeper may be needed. For example, research on the experiences of illegal immigrants may need a community leader to introduce potential participants.
• Note: Gatekeepers provide initial access and trust to the target group.

Different Approaches Require Different Access

• Narrative Study: Requires permission to share personal stories (e.g., a biography researcher asking an athlete for access to their personal journals).
• Phenomenological Study: Requires access to individuals who have experienced the phenomenon (e.g., interviewing people diagnosed with depression about their lived experiences).
• Grounded Theory Study: Requires rapport so participants provide in-depth insights into a process (e.g., interviewing teachers about how they adapt to new educational policies).
• Ethnographic Study: Requires gradual immersion in a cultural group (e.g., a researcher studying street musicians builds trust by spending time with them before conducting interviews).
• Case Study: Requires access to specific sites, events, or individuals (e.g., studying a company’s remote work policy by interviewing employees and reviewing internal documents).

Step 4: Sampling

• Purposeful sampling is often applied in qualitative studies.
• However, the choice of participants depends on the study’s approach.

Sampling Examples Based on Research Type:

• Narrative research: Selection is based on convenience, political importance, or unique lived experiences. Example: Teoh Jia Yi, a Chinese immigrant in Canada, was selected to explore ethnic identity through multiple perspectives.
• Phenomenology: Uses criterion sampling—only participants who have experienced the phenomenon are included. Example: A study on grief might only include individuals who have lost a parent.
• Grounded Theory: Uses theoretical sampling—choosing participants who contribute to theory development. Example: Initially studying a homogeneous group (e.g., women who have experienced childhood abuse) and later expanding to heterogeneous groups (e.g., men or other types of trauma survivors) to refine the theory.
• Ethnography: Uses big net sampling (observing everyone first) and later opportunistic sampling (selecting key members). Example: A researcher studying skateboard culture first interacts with all members and later focuses on core influencers.
• Case Study: Uses maximum variation sampling to capture multiple perspectives or extreme case sampling for unique cases. Example: A case study on cybercrime might focus on unusual user experiences from Silk Road, the dark web drug marketplace.

Types of Sampling Techniques

• Typical Case Sampling: Selecting individuals who represent a common experience within a group.
• Extreme or Deviant Case Sampling: Studying individuals with unique or extraordinary experiences to gain deeper insights.
• Snowball Sampling: Identifying key participants who then refer the researcher to others with similar experiences.
• Convenience Sampling: Choosing participants who are readily available, though this may limit the depth of findings.
• Criterion Sampling: Ensuring all participants meet a set of predefined criteria related to the phenomenon.
• Homogeneous Sampling: Selecting a group of individuals with shared characteristics to allow for in-depth exploration of their experiences.
• Maximum Variation Sampling: Including participants with diverse experiences of the phenomenon to capture a wide range of perspectives.
• Theoretical Sampling: Selecting participants based on emerging findings, allowing the researcher to refine and develop the theory.
• Confirming and Disconfirming Cases: Seeking participants who either support or challenge the developing theory.
• Big Net Approach: Initially engaging with a broad range of individuals before narrowing the focus.
• Stratified Purposeful Sampling: Dividing cases into subgroups for comparison.

Sample Size

• Depends on research approach.

• Narrative Research: Often focuses on one or a few individuals.

• Phenomenology: Typically 5-25 participants.

• Grounded Theory: The number of participants evolves as theory develops (saturation point).

• Ethnography: Sample size depends on the depth of immersion in the culture.

• Case Study: Typically includes multiple cases with diverse perspectives.

Data Collection Methods

1. Interviewing

• It is a form of social interaction where knowledge is co-constructed.
• Types of interviews:
  • One-on-one
  • Face-to-face
  • Phone
  • Online (chatting via text, video call, etc.)
  • Focus group

Steps to Conduct an Interview

1. Focus on research questions:
   • Should be open-ended and focus on the central phenomenon.
   • Example: A study on workplace stress may ask questions like:
     • "Can you describe a time when you felt extremely stressed at work?"
     • "How do you manage stress in your workplace?"
   • Avoid “YES”/”NO” questions.
2. Identify suitable interviewees (purposeful sampling).
3. Choose the right interview type.
4. Record data effectively (appropriate tools).
5. Develop interview protocol.
6. Conduct pilot test.
7. Find a suitable location (sensitive topics, require privacy).
8. Obtain consent and ethical approval.
9. Be a good interviewer:
   • Listen more.
   • Respect boundaries (don’t pressure for responses).
   • Follow interview protocol but be flexible.
10. Plan for transcription and analysis.

Challenges of Interviewing

• Online interviews: lack of visual cues. Participants might not feel as engaged. Use video calls instead of text.
• Shy or less articulate participants: Build rapport, provide warm-up questions, give time to respond.
• Dominant participants (FGD): Politely redirect conversation to include quieter participants.
• Technical issues: recorder malfunction, etc. Use multiple recorders.

1. Observation

• Observation involves systematic process of watching and recording of behaviors, interactions, and environment.

• Types of observation:

  • Complete participant
  • Participant as observer
  • Observer as participant
  • Complete observer

• Complete participation:

  • The researcher actively participates in the group while collecting data. Example: A researcher studying street vendors joins a food stall as a temporary worker. While selling food, they observe customer interactions, work stress, and the vendor’s daily challenges. The vendors may not even know they are being studied, allowing the researcher to get authentic data.

• Participant as observer:

  • The researcher is involved in the activity but informs participants they are conducting research.

• Observer as participant:

  • The researcher observes from a distance without participating in the activity.

• Complete observer:

  • The researcher is hidden or unnoticed, ensuring that their presence does not influence participants' behavior. Example: Observing people in a waiting room through a security camera to see natural interactions.

Recording Procedures

1. Interview Protocol

• An interview protocol is a structured form that helps researchers take notes, stay organized, and guide conversations effectively.
• Elements of an interview protocol include:
  • Header: Includes the project title, interviewee details, date, and location. It reminds the researcher to explain the study's purpose and confidentiality agreement.
  • Open-ended Questions: Space is left between questions so researchers can take notes freely.
  • Flexibility: Responses may not always follow the question order, so notes should be taken in a way that captures relevant details.
  • Transitions & Memorization: The researcher should try to maintain eye contact and make smooth transitions between questions.
  • Closing Comments: The form includes a section for thanking the participant and requesting follow-up information if necessary.

Example: Interview protocol for studying work-life balance

• Title: Work-Life Balance Among University Lecturers
• Time of interview: 2PM-2.45PM
• Date: 14 March, 2025
• Location: Lecturer’s office
• Interviewer: Dr. Teoh Jia Long
• Interviewee: Assoc. Prof. Muhammad Idris
• Position of interviewee: Deputy dean of Faculty of Psychology and Social Work.

Questions:

1. How do you balance your professional and personal life?
2. What challenges do you face in maintaining work-life balance?
3. What strategies have you found to be effective in managing your workload?
4. What do you think of remote teaching?
5. How policies or institutional changes would help improve work-life balance?

Potential notes during interview:

• Dr. Idris finds it difficult in maintaining work-life balance due to administrative tasks.
• He prefers flexible work schedules but finds online teaching to be more exhausting.
• He suggests that the university should provide mental health support and workload adjustments.
• Closing: “Thank you for your time, Dr. Idris. Your insights are valuable. If needed, may I contact you for further clarification?”

1. Observational Protocol

• An observational protocol is a structured form that helps researchers document behaviors, interactions, and environmental settings during field observations.
• It includes:
  • Header: Information about the observation (date, location, time, researcher’s name).
  • Descriptive Notes: Factual details about what is happening (who, what, when, where).
  • Reflective Notes: Personal thoughts, interpretations, and initial analysis of the observed behaviors.
  • Visual Sketch: A simple drawing of the setting to provide context.

Example: Observational protocol for a classroom study

• Title: Student participation in university lectures.
• Observation date: 13 March, 2025.
• Time: 10AM-12PM.
• Location: DKP6, UMS.
• Observer: Dr. Muhammad Idris.
• Course observed: Qualitative research method.
• Instructor: Dr. Teoh

Potential descriptive notes:

• The lecture began at 10:05 AM with a PowerPoint presentation.
• 188 students attended, sitting in small groups.
• About 10 students actively participated in discussions.
• Dr. Teoh uses real-life examples and humor to engage students.
• Some students were using their phones and seemed to be distracted.

Potential reflective notes:

• Active participation seems to be influenced by seating arrangement—students at the front are more engaged.
• The instructor’s storytelling technique is effective in holding attention.
• Some students hesitate to speak, possibly due to lack of confidence or fear of judgment.
• Future observations should focus on factors affecting engagement (e.g., time of day, topic complexity).

Visual sketch of classroom layout:

• A simple sketch of seating arrangements showing engaged vs. distracted students.
• Closing: Thanked the lecturer and noted plans for a follow-up observation in another class.

Data Storage

• Two key principals:
  • Backup
  • Store backup in multiple locations
• Protect participants anonymity.