Minoan Crete

Minoan Crete   

Geography, history overview:

• Mediterranean Sea, south-east of Greece

• The Aegean Bronze Age began ~3000 BCE, lasted ~1200/1100 BCE

• 52% mountainous, White Mountains in the west, Ida mountains central, highlands around Mt Dikte in the east.

• Lower slopes on highlands covered in trees/forest - especially Cypress

• Lots of caves, many myths related to them and many significant sites and significant religious sites

• The coast has lots of farmland

  • Olives, grapes, lemons, mulberries, pears and other fruits, almonds, carob (chocolate), peas, lentils, beans, cabbage and asparagus, honey (highly prized)

  • Medicinal herbs

  • purple dye- extracted from Murex Mollusc along the coast.

Significant sites:

Identity and gender of the ruler:

• Initial archaeological research indicates a male ruler due to male historians not taking the actual evidence into account (I’m looking at you, Arthur Evans)

• All frescos show men as subservient to women, most imagery of women shows them in positions of power, possibly as goddesses or as queens/rulers (women were depicted in white, men were depicted in red)

• The chair

  • Suspected to be for a female ruler as it resembles a throne but is narrow and is suspected to be designed for a slimmer figure, possibly that of a woman

• Key piece of evidence - Prince of the Lillies fresco

  • Depicts an assumed male figure

  • The figure is white (female colour)

  • Made up of fragments of other frescos so any assumptions are automatically damaged by this fact

  • Crown of lilies and peacock feathers likely taken from a sphinx (female figure)

Palace elite:

• Members of the ruling class, and members of the religious and economic administration

• Linear B tablets suggest the presence of a bureaucracy, but it is unknown how it was structured

• It's likely it primarily operated within palaces where records of the collection and distribution of goods were kept.

• Overseers were lower members of the palace elite, they oversaw the collection, storage, local distribution, and overseas export of goods

• Evidence of this is a collection of copper ingots and Linear A tablets found in House A, at the site of Agia Triada. Perhaps this house belonged to a member of the bureaucracy.

Role and status of women:

• Specialist craft roles include carders, spinners, weavers, dyers, finishers, and overseers (bureaucrats).

• Religious power - priestesses, main/head priestess (Anemospilia)

• Frescoes depicting wealthy and fine dresses and ornaments

Craft and agricultural workers:

• Crete had a range of crafts including stonemasons, metalworkers, glass and faience makers, gem cutters, ivory carvers, sculptors, potters, jewellers, builders, fresco painters, dye makers, textile workers, oil makers

• Agriculture workers included Farmers and herders, labourers, and fishermen

• Evidence indicates that specialized workers were for a major part part-time workers who would have also worked as farmers and field workers to support the agricultural aspect of Crete.

• Evidence suggests that farms were for the most part owned by lords or landlords and the workers worked for them and were paid in wages and food, though evidence is limited.

• Do not compare this to the image of Medieval England with peasants working the land of their lords, it is more likely that the structure of the economy allowed for workers to have two part-time jobs or to practice a craft in their free time.

• Massive storage magazines are found in the palaces indicating the production of a surplus for storage, exports, and distribution with Crete.

• Storage magazines had the capacity for hundreds of thousands of litres of liquid storage in pithois, and tens of thousands of litres of storage for grain or other produce.

• The main agricultural produce in Crete was olives, figs, barley, wheat, figs, honey, legumes, and other fruits.

The palace economy:

• The Minoan Economy was essentially based on agriculture. Wealth was generated from the produce of the island, including oil, wine, grain, timber and wool.

• Examples of goods imported might be copper,  gold,  stone and lapis lazuli as well as ivory and other raw materials from around the Aegean and beyond.

• These raw materials were probably obtained through trade with foreign rulers and not through free trade as we might know it.

• So the palaces were centres of:

  • collection (goods from the countryside and overseas)

  • storage (agricultural products and wool clip)

  • production (crafts and industries)

  • consumption (food, payments and religious dedications)

  • regulation (internal exchange and external trade).

• The main sources of evidence of the palace economy are the:

  • Linear B clay tablets with lists of agricultural products such as wool and the number of livestock under the palaces’ control

  • Giant storage jars, or pithoi, extensive magazines (storerooms) around palace sites and stone subfloor pits or silos (koulouras) used to hold commercial goods.

• The palaces provided storage for agricultural surplus (the amount of goods left over when local needs have been met). This surplus allowed for the emergence of palaces as dominant economic centres and allowed for the Minoans to become key players in international trade. 

• The palaces provided work areas for craftsmen - manufacturing included ivory work, pottery, stonework, metalwork of both practical and luxury items and textile manufacture. The palaces also controlled these crafts in the surrounding towns such as at Gournia, Knossos and Zakro where bronze manufacturing tools have been found.

• The palaces administered and coordinated trade. Linear A tablets possibly were the inventories of stock held within palace storerooms. The palace elite are assumed to have coordinated the exchange of goods and produce between regions of Crete, and also the import and export of goods from overseas. Copper and Ivory imports into Zakro and Aghia Triada where ingots and tusks have been found, are an example of this control. In turn, luxury goods formed the majority of exports – goods produced in the palace workshops and surrounding towns.

Trade/Economic Exchange and Thalassocracy:

• Trade was directed by rulers or social elites, and is sometimes referred to as “royal exchange” rather than trade.

• When Cretans (Keftui in Egyptian) appear in Egyptian frescoes carrying goods they are not depicted as ‘traders’ or ‘merchants’ but as gift bearers, or bearers of tribute. This implies that there was a trading relationship between Crete and Egypt, but it may be more accurately referred to as a royal exchange.

• There are frescos in Thebes and Avaris depicting Minoan bull jumpers, indicating a strong connection between the two societies.

Diet and health of the Minoans:

• Women ate more grains and legumes for a majority of the archaeological record available on Crete, while men ate more meat products.

• Tooth decay was a significant cause of death as the stones used to mill grain left minuscule stone fragments in the flour and milled wheat, resulting in teeth being worn down, leading to tooth disease, and the treatment methods rarely succeeded in treating it

• Evidence of advanced medical care is evident, however, as skeletons with set and healed broken bones have been uncovered across the island.

• Why did the Minoans perform sacrifices?

To please the gods and win favour, blessings, and good fortune.

• How common was the practice of human sacrifice and in what context were human sacrifices performed?

Only in times of social unrest, natural disaster, or other dramatic events.

• Describe what happened to the animals after they were sacrificed.

The meat of the sacrificed animal was cooked and eaten by the worshippers.

• What is a libation and where did libation pouring take place?

A liquid poured out in honour of the gods, such as wine, juice, or oil. Evidence remains that it took place in temples, shrines, and religious spaces.

•  What does Nanno Marinatos claim in regard to Minoan processions?

That there were grandstands for onlookers to view the procession, and raised walkways for the procession to take place on.

• Why was dancing considered a religious experience for the Minoans?

Evidence on seal stones and rings depicting figures with small heads is believed to signify that dancing was a religious connection, an altered state of being. Evidence from other Agean and international ancient societies also suggests that dancing was a religious experience in their own societies so it is not beyond the realm of belief.

• Provide two examples of evidence for dance in Minoan Crete.

The ‘dancing place’ in Knossos, and a clay model depicting a scene in a similar-looking location.

Minoan technology, building and water supply: 

• Building materials used by Minoans: 

  • Limestone, stone, wood, lime mortar, clay, mud and reeds

Nature of Minoan religion and religious symbols: 

• What is the difference between monotheism and polytheism? 

  • A monotheistic religion worships a single god, while a polytheistic religion worships multiple What evidence do Linear A and Linear B tablets provide about the Minoan religion? Inscriptions of libation formulae and linguistic evidence for six Minoan deities. 

• What ideas about the Minoan religion did Arthur Evans propose and why?

• That Minoan religion was essentially monotheistic, centred on a goddess of fertility - a mother or earth goddess

• What findings led archaeologists to believe the Minoan religion was preoccupied with birth and fertility? 

  • The depictions of female goddesses and female figurines, as well as female rhytons with pierced breasts - to allow milk and libations to flow from them, symbolizing fertility and pregnancy 

• Zoom in on the snake goddess artifact. What features of the figurine suggest she could be a goddess? 

  • The headwear, the layered flowing gown which resembled frescoes of priestesses and possibly goddesses, and the snakes in her hands - normal  Minoan women usually wouldn’t hold a snake in either hand. 

• Apart from representing a goddess, how else could the figurine be interpreted?

  • She could be a priestess 

• Zoom in on the ‘Mistress of animals’ seal. What features mean it is valid to identify the figure as a god? 

  • Her stance, the headwear, the animals below her, all facing her as if in deference.

Religious places: 

• It is easier to describe Minoan religious practices using evidence than it is to understand their exact beliefs. 

• Religion would have contributed to a sense of identity and community. 

• Religion would have reinforced the social order. 

• The cult of a goddess or goddess appears to have been of special importance. Minoan religion appears to be closely connected to the natural world. 

• Votive offerings indicate personal involvement in religious rites. 

• We can make inferences about beliefs regarding death and the underworld using evidence from burials/funerary cult practices. 

• Libation 

  • A drink or liquid poured out as an offering to a deity. 

• Rite of passage 

  • A ceremony or ritual to mark a significant event in someone's life, ie birth, the transition from childhood to adulthood, marriage, or death. 

• Stalagmites

  • A naturally occurring pillar on the floor of a cave formed by dripping calcium salts deposited by water from the ceiling. 

• Votive offering 

  • Objects placed without intention for use as an offering to a deity, ie figurines, or tools. 

• Crypt 

  • An underground vault, used as a religious space or burial place. 

• Why were caves considered sacred by the Minoans and what does the evidence reveal about the types of religious rituals that were performed in caves? 

  • As they were underground and contained natural phenomena, such as stalagmites and stalactites, many of the largest religious spaces, such as temples and crypts, are found in caves, the journey to reach them possibly serving as a physical test of the worshippers’ devotion. Many Minoan deities are linked to the earth, and caves were a natural phenomenon and were thus closely linked to  religion. 

• Explain why peak sanctuaries were used as religious sites. What is the evidence for religious activity at peak sanctuaries? 

  • From a peak sanctuary, located on the top of mountains or hills, you could gain a “gods-eye view” of the world, and the high-up location was connected to the sky, an unreachable goal that was linked to the deities. Evidence for this is found in temples with common religious symbols, such as the horns of consecration, and evidence of votive offerings and sacrifices. 

• Why do researchers believe that pillar crypts were revered by the Minoans? Where was this worship of columns assumed to have originated from? 

  • Pillar crypts have been found across the island, such as at Mallia, which is distant from the cave temples. Its believed that it originated from the stalactites and stalagmites in caves. 

• What is a tripartite shrine? Where have they been found? 

  • Shrines divided into three parts, believed to have been used for communal worshipping, likely amongst the rich due to the locations they have been found, in richer towns such as Knossos and Zakros. 

• Describe the main features of palace shrines. 

  • Benches along the walls, entrance through an antechamber, and a central feature such as an altar, hearth, or firepit. 

• Outline what scholars such as Nanno Marinatos and Geraldine Gesell argue.

  • That, during the second palace period, the elite took over access to worship spaces inside the palaces. 

• What is the assumed function of a lustral basin? 

  • As a religious space, or as a bathroom, as evidence for both is found. Most commonly they are assumed to be religious spaces, with horns of consecration and another religious iconography. 

Rituals death and burials:

• Why did the Minoans perform sacrifices? 

  • To please the gods and win favour, blessings, and good fortune. 

• How common was the practice of human sacrifice and in what context were human sacrifices performed? 

  • Only in times of social unrest, natural disaster, or other dramatic events. Describe what happened to the animals after they were sacrificed. 

• The meat of the sacrificed animal was cooked and eaten by the worshippers. What is a libation and where did libation pouring take place? 

  • A liquid poured out in honour of the gods, such as wine, juice, or oil. Evidence remains that it took place in temples, shrines, and religious spaces. 

• What does Nanno Marinatos claim in regard to Minoan processions? 

  • That there were grandstands for onlookers to view the procession and raised walkways for the procession to take place on. 

• Why was dancing considered a religious experience for the Minoans? 

  • Evidence on seal stones and rings depicting figures with small heads is believed to signify that dancing was a religious connection, an altered state of being. Evidence from other Agean and international ancient societies also suggests that dancing was a religious experience in their own societies so it is not beyond the realm of belief. 

• Provide two examples of evidence for dance in Minoan Crete. 

  • The ‘dancing place’ in Knossos, and a clay model depicting a scene in a similar looking location. 

• What were daimones? 

  • Spirits that existed near the bodies of the dead. 

• The Minoans practised inhumation, what is that? 

  • Burial in the ground. 

• What do Minoan burial practices suggest about Minoan religious beliefs?

  • That they believed in an afterlife in some form. 

• How was burial characterized in Minoan Crete? 

  • It was communal, with massive shared tombs. However, it is unclear what the relationships between the individuals were. 

Myths and legends:

• King Minos 

• The Minotaur 

• The Labyrinth 

• Daedelus and Icarus 

• Minos and Pasiphae 

Minoan art:

• It allowed for the development of uniform and widespread styles and can be used to track the palatial periods as specific styles came in and out of style.

• The periods of Minoan pottery styles are as follows: 

  • The Marine Style 

  • The Floral Style 

  • The Abstract and Geometric Style 

  • The Alternating Style (isolated designs such as shields or labrys’) 

Architecture of the palaces:

• What distinguishes palaces from large houses? 

  • It was made up of a cluster of connected buildings, with different uses such as workshops and temples, too big and with too many uses for a single family and servants.

• Were Minoan palaces unplanned? What was the basic idea of Minoan architecture? How  were palaces decorated? 

  • Palaces were planned, with the basic idea of allowing for expansion when necessary. Palaces were decorated with frescoes and decorations on pillars and other necessary architectural features. 

• Summarise the building practices of Minoan architects. Comment on the drainage systems of the palaces. 

  • They used extremely advanced open-cut and closed terracotta pipes to funnel water and waste outside the palaces. 

• What features of the central courtyards of the palaces are identified by Callender? What was the function of the Central Court and West Court of palaces such as Knossos according to Callender? What evidence exists to indicate this function? 

  • Surrounding rooms branch off from it. The use of these Central Courts, according to Callender, was for meetings and administrative purposes, as proven by written records. 

• The domestic quarters (a note; these were originally identified as residential or living quarters but are no longer considered to be living quarters. Instead, they are related to domestic economic and possibly political functions): Describe the general features of the large halls in these areas of the palaces. 

  • Divisible by a pier partition, with nearby stone-lined rooms used for water use, possibly showers or a religious purpose. 

• How does Callender differ from Evans in her comments on the King's and Queen's Megarons at Knossos? 

  • She states that there is no clear sign that; the rooms were for single-gender use, and that they were used for royalty. 

• The upper floors. 

  • In what conditions did Evans find the upper levels in the east and the west wings of Knossos? 

    • Very little remained other than staircases leading nowhere and some pillars.

  • How did he and other archaeologists reason that the west wing upper floors contained important rooms - what possible use did he propose for these upper levels? 

    • The grand and decorative nature of the staircases and the artifacts that have fallen through or remained in the remnants of the upper floors. 

• Workshops; Where are these rooms located? Identify at least three activities carried out in this part of the palaces. 

  • At Knossos, they were found in the North-East sector of the palace 

• Carpentry, pottery, weaving and dyeing cloth. 

  • Storage; How are storerooms identified? Describe the appearance of these rooms. How many such rooms are there in Knossos and where are they located on the palace plan? 

    • Huge pithoi in pits in the ground, tablets with lists of goods and markings on the wall to indicate the goods stored in specific areas. 

    • There are 16, located on the West side of the palace in an enclosed, dark space with no windows. 

Leisure activities:

Minoan writing:

• Minoan hieroglyphic script remains unintelligible 

• The Phaistos Disc is most probably a hoax or a forgery 

• Most Minoan written sources were written on materials that have perished The written sources in Linear A script remain undeciphered 

• The written sources in Linear B script are mainly lists and inventories 

• Who was Thoth? 

  • The Egyptian God of writing, usually depicted with an Ibis head and holding a scroll. 

• What is cuneiform script and what is the relevance to Minoan civilisation? A written language developed by the Sumerians and used across Babylonia and the Near East 

  • How do historians believe the Minoans developed hieroglyphics in the early Minoan Period? 

• Because this period marks the shift from the use of cuneiform to the use of Minoan hieroglyphs, likely influenced by their contact with Egypt, as many Minoan hieroglyphs are similar or identical to Egyptian hieroglyphs. 

  • The Minoans had three different scripts/ forms of writing, what were they? Minoan hieroglyphs, Linear A, and Linear B 

• What is the problem with the written source material from Minoan Crete that has managed to survive? 

  • Much of it is untranslated, and much of the translated work is administrative, with cattle or produce numbers