2. MethodsTheories (2)

Development Across the Lifespan: Methodology & Theories

Updates/Reminders

• Notes Posting: Notes will be posted on Canvas ahead of class, often on the same day as the session.

• ARC Accommodations: Students with ARC accommodations should set up a meeting.

• Reading Responses:

  • Do all readings! Select one (A, B, C, D, or E) to submit a response by the start of class.

• Article Reflections:

  • Required reflections; do not confuse with Reading Responses.

  • Everyone writes reflections on the same article on the same day.

Perspectives on Development

Nature vs. Nurture

• Nature (Nativism):

  • Abilities are innate or present from birth, shaped by evolution.

  • Learning systems and mental structures are predisposed to acquire and process certain information.

• Nurture (Empiricism):

  • Abilities are learned through experiences and the environment.

  • Concept of Tabula Rasa (blank slate): all knowledge is acquired through associations with sensory experiences.

Roles of Nature and Nurture

• Nature:

  • Genetic influences, heredity, and universal traits among species.

• Nurture:

  • Impact of parenting, education, and cultural factors on child development.

The Interplay of Nature and Nurture

• Development is a complex interaction between innate abilities and experiential learning.

• Most theorists acknowledge the initial capability to learn and perceive in children.

• Comparative Perspectives: Includes viewpoints from evolutionary biology, cross-cultural studies, and neuroscience.

• Behaviorist and Cognitive Perspectives: Focus on various approaches to studying behaviors.

• Critical Lens: All developmental theories must consider historical issues of white supremacy and systemic racism.

Studying Development

Goals of Developmental Studies

• Not Merely Descriptive: The focus is not simply to accumulate facts about developmental milestones (e.g., walking at 11-14 months).

• Explanation and Prediction: Aim to understand the mechanisms behind developmental changes and formulate theories.

Framework of Theory

• A comprehensive theory should:

  • Describe developmental abilities and changes.

  • Explain causative factors for these changes.

  • Predict future developmental milestones.

Research Methodology

Steps in Hypothesis Testing

1. Identify a question.

2. Formulate a hypothesis (testable prediction).

3. Develop a method for testing.

4. Analyze the data to draw conclusions.

Example of Theory Testing

• Question: Preference of babies to look at faces versus non-faces?

• Hypothesis: Babies prefer human faces.

• Method: Measuring gaze duration between faces and non-faces.

• Conclusion: Babies demonstrate a preference for faces, suggesting an innate predisposition.

Methods for Gathering Data

Types of Data Collection

1. Clinical Interviews:

   • Direct questioning, allows for follow-up questions. Pros and cons regarding self-reports.

2. Naturalistic Observations:

   • Observing behavior in natural settings. Can wait long for behavior but gathers rich data.

3. Structured Observations:

   • Researcher controls variables in a specific context, though it may lack naturalistic qualities.

4. Longitudinal Studies:

   • Tracking the same group over time.

   • Example: Following a group of children as they grow.

5. Cross-Sectional Studies:

   • Comparing different age groups at one point in time.

6. Correlational Studies:

   • Examining relationships between characteristics (e.g., fat-muscle ratio vs. age of walking).

7. Experimental Studies:

   • Manipulating variables to establish cause and effect. Includes independent and dependent variables.

Learning Theories

Different Learning Mechanisms

• Habituation: Infants exhibit a preference for novel stimuli after repeated exposure.

• Perceptual Learning: Infants form associations and learn from their environment.

• Classical Conditioning: Forming associations between stimuli and responses.

• Instrumental Learning (Operant Conditioning): Associating behaviors with outcomes (rewards/punishments).

• Imitation: Learning and adapting behaviors observed from others.

• Hypothesis Testing: Infants actively test connections between stimuli, akin to "child scientists."

Implications and Expectations

Assignments & Reflections

• Upcoming Assignments: Article Reflection 1 due, emphasizing quality over quantity.

• Plagiarism Awareness: Understand proper paraphrasing and the importance of original expression in academic work.

Reading Empirical Articles

• Key Sections:

  • Abstract: Quick summary of study.

  • Introduction: Context and relevance of research.

  • Method: Replicability details.

  • Results: Outcomes of the study, with clear statistical representations.

  • Discussion: Interpreting findings and suggesting future research paths.