Psychology 2000 Exam 1

What is Psychology?

What is Psychology?

Psychology refers to the scientific study of the mind and behavior

What does Psychology mean? Where does it come from? Hank Green gives you a 10-minute intro and talks about some of the big names in the development of the field.

A. Psychology – Psychology refers to the scientific study of the mind and brain

1. Behavior – anything an organism does.  Yawning, taking notes, looking bored. 

2. The Mind - Mental processes – internal, personal experiences that we infer from behavior.  Sensations, perceptions, dreams, feelings, beliefs, etc.  We can’t see these directly, but we can make some educated guesses about what is going on inside a person by observing their behaviors.

3. Hypothesis – Educated guess to explain something; needs to be tested

Difference between a Theory and a Hypothesis

This video describes the difference between a theory and a hypothesis. It also explains how evidence can support or refute a hypothesis but can never prove a theory.

B. Empirical method: Way of answering questions based on observation/ experimentation

Empirical Studies

This video will show you how to determine whether or not a research article is an empirical study.

C. Why Study Psychology? In other words, why is this class important to your future success? Why should you care about this material?

They learn about basic principles that guide how we think and behave, and they come to recognize the tremendous diversity that exists across individuals and across cultural boundaries

1. It teaches critical thinking.  Critical Thinking – does not blindly accept conclusions  

We are surrounded by a truly staggering amount of information.  The Internet has fundamentally changed the way we receive and process information.  We must learn a vital skill – being able to distinguish a good source of information from a bad source of information.

For example, if I wanted to know about the effects of smoking on my health, should I go to the Centers for Disease Control website, or a tobacco manufacturer’s website? Why did you make the choice you did?

Critical Thinking

There are 3 main characteristics a scientist must have in order to think critically:\

a. Curiosity - to have the enthusiasm and willingness to question and explore the world around us, because science emerges from the curiosity of the human mind.

b. Skepticism – don’t take anything at face value – show me the data!  In being interested in science, one has to approach the things we examine with a certain extent of skepticism, while at the same time being open-minded; we do not immediately reject ideas simply because they sound improbable, nor do we immediately accept ideas that sound plausible.

c. Humility – we must be able to accept that the ideas that we form may not always be correct once we had set out to prove it. Scientists are people, just like everyone else.  It can be very difficult to separate your ego from your data.

 - Don’t overdo it- keep an open mind

2. It helps students learn to communicate more effectively.  Learning to think critically helps you examine your own beliefs, and helps you communicate those beliefs to others.  This is an especially important skill for your future career!

3. It helps students understand themselves and others.  One of my favorite quotes is from the American author H. L. Mencken – “For every complex problem there is an answer that is clear, simple, and wrong.” In our everyday lives, we jump to conclusions about the behaviors of others – that they are bad people, or uncaring, or any number of other possible explanations.  We rarely purposefully think about the factors that may have contributed to their behavior. 

II. History of Psychology

A. Wundt and Structuralism  In psychology today, we ask many of the same questions that people have asked throughout human history.  However, before the advent of psychology as a science, these questions were mainly philosophical.

1. Important researchers – Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener

This is the only date I’m ever going to ask you to remember – Establishment of 1st psychological laboratory- 1879, Leipzig, Germany

2. Wilhelm Wundt and Edward Titchener were associated with the theoretical perspective known as structuralism -  Its focus was on the contents of mental processes rather than their function

Wundt sought to describe the “atoms” of the mind – the very basic processes that make up thought.   He believed that psychology was the science of how we consciously experience the world around us. 

3. Introspection – a process by which someone examines their own conscious experience as objectively as possible, making the human mind like any other aspect of nature that a scientist observed

Trained observers described thoughts, feelings, memories, etc., when exposed to stimuli

 Structuralism: tried to explain the structure of thought

Structuralism and Introspection

While Wundt is important as one of the first people to try to study the mind and behavior in a systematic method, his views ultimately fell out of favor because of the limitations of introspection. 

 -Wundt wanted to describe basic processes of thought- how does thought take place

For more on structuralism, visit Wundt and Structuralism

B. Functionalism – focused on how mental activities helped an organism fit into its environment

Adaptive value of behaviors/ mental processes

Functionalism

1. Important researchers – William James and Charles Darwin

This school of psychology was formed as a reaction to the structuralism and was heavily influenced by the work of William James and the evolutionary theory of Charles Darwin. Darwin was trying to explain why we see so much variation in the natural world – why animals and plants developed so differently from one another.  For example, why are there so many types of birds – why are their physical features so different from one species to the next?

2. William James was also ahead of his time in thinking about women – he accepted female pioneers like Mary Whiton Calkins into his graduate program, even though that meant the men dropped out of the classes she took.

C. Freud and Psychoanalytic Theory: Focuses on the role of a person's unconscious, as well as early childhood experiences

Early childhood experiences are important; we don’t have access to a lot of who we are

(Freud placed a great deal of emphasis on sexual and violent impulses)

1. Important researcher – Sigmund Freud

2. Freud was hugely influential in the popularization of psychology.  Psychoanalytic theory  –

 Eros: life instinct; procreation, social cooperation, survival

Thanatos: Death instinct; aggression, risky behavior, reliving trauma

Overview of Psychoanalysis

Learn about Sigmund Freud's Psychoanalytic Theory of Personality and the different structures of our mind that contribute to our personality.

D. Gestalt Psychology – Central principle summarized by Gestalt psychologist Kurt Koffka: “The whole is other than the sum of the parts”

Ex: You perceive your friend’s face differently than just a collection of mouth, nose, eyes, ears, etc.

1. Important researchers – Max Wertheimer, Kurt Koffka, and Wolfgang Köhler

2. When we listen to music, we hear the contributions of different instruments – guitar, bass, drums, etc. Gestalt psychologists would point out that while we can listen to instruments individually, the true experience of the song is in the blending of all of them together. 

E. Behaviorism –believed psychology should focus on observable behavior

1. Important researchers – Ivan Pavlov, John B. Watson and B. F. Skinner

2. Beginning in the 1920’s, researchers like John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner thought that a focus on internal processes was unscientific, as these processes could not be directly observed.  For them, psychology was the scientific study of observable behavior.  This led to the rise of the school of behaviorism.

Watson's Views on Behaviorism

John B. Watson famously claimed that if he were to be given a dozen healthy infants, he could shape them into anything; doctors, lawyers, artists, beggars, or thieves, regardless of their background or genetic predispositions. He later applied his theory when raising his own children.

F. Humanism -  Is a perspective within psychology that emphasizes the potential good that is innate to all humans

-Dissatisfied with pessimism of psychoanalyses/ behaviorism

 Fundamental beliefs: humans are basically good

1. Important researchers -  Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers

2. Humanist thinkers felt that both psychoanalysis and behaviorism were too pessimistic, either focusing on the most tragic of emotions or failing to take into account the role of personal choice.

3. The fundamental belief of humanistic psychology is that people are innately good and that mental and social problems result from deviations from this natural tendency. We will discuss humanistic psychology in more detail in future chapters.

4. Maslow’s hierarchy of needs – Model of needs that motivate human behavior

Crash Course - Humanism

In this excerpt from Crash Course in Psychology, Hank gives an overview of the the Humanist Theories of personality.

For more information on humanistic psychology, visit Humanistic Psychology

G. The Cognitive Revolution - Beginning in the 1960’s, psychology comes full circle and returns to its roots in the study of mental processes.  This was called the cognitive revolution, and cognitive psychology remains one of the dominant views in psychology today. 

1. Important researchers – Noam Chomsky and Ulric Neisser

2. Cognitive psychology – Is the area of psychology that focuses on studying cognitions, or thoughts, and their relationship

How we perceive, process, and remember information

Cognitive psychology is part of a broader field known as cognitive neuroscience.

3. Cognitive neuroscience – Study of brain activity link with cognition

 -Different sciences working together to see how observable brain activity is linked with thought processes

-Advanced brain imaging techniques

H. Multicultural and Cross-Cultural Psychology

1. Culture – Distinctive costumes, values, beliefs, knowledge, art, and language of a society

We are often blind to our own culture – when you grow up with a set of expectations and ideas about what people should and should not do, wear, eat, etc., you don’t really question those ideas.  It’s when we start to compare cultures to one another that we start to see its impact.

Although culture shapes our specific attitudes and behaviors, the principles that underlie them vary much less. For example, while we may speak different languages, we all use grammar to give structure to our language.

Culture and Personality

2. WEIRD cultures – Western, educated, industrialized, rich, and democratic

III. Contemporary Psychology

1. Biopsychology and Evolutionary Psychology 

1. Biopsychology – explores how our biology influences our behavior

Biological basis of behaviors, thoughts, emotions and reciprocal relations between biological/ psychological processes

Biopsychology Explained

Biological psychology focuses on the relationship between our biological makeup and our behaviour and experiences. It is responsible for discovering that the structure of our nervous system (including our brains) and the action of chemicals have a big effect on our behaviour. However, an important question is how much of our biology affects us?

1. Evolutionary Psychology - We spoke about Darwin before with Functionalism: attempts to explain useful mental/ psychological traits as adaptations

Natural Selection: Individuals with specific adaptations survive and outbreed individuals without them

(Giraffes born with longer necks lived longer, had more babies than short- necked giraffes)

Keep in mind that there is no guiding hand in evolution – differences first come about through random mutations.  Some mutations are bad, like cancer.  Some mutations are good, and give individuals an advantage compared to other members of their species.  Over a long, long period of time, those who have the useful mutation will outbreed those that do not have it.

Evolutionary psychologists might be interested in why we have gender roles – how have differences in male and female behavior helped us over our evolutionary past?

B. Developmental Psychology – Study of how and why human beings change over course of their life

Developmental psychologists are interested in what changes about people as a function of development.  While the field began by focusing on the changes of childhood and adolescence, there are many developmental psychologists today who study the changes associated with adulthood and growing old.

C. Personality Psychology – how personality develops/ influences way we think/ behave

Personality traits – mostly consistent patterns of thoughts/ behaviors

The Big Five Model of Personality

Some of us are shy, some of us are outgoing, some people focus easily on tasks, while others will need more direction.  These differences make each of us unique.

D. Social Psychology – How thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of individuals are influenced by actual, imagined, implied, presence of others

-‘Imagined’ and ‘Implied presences’- internalized social norms humans are influenced by even when they are alone

(Stereotyping)

For example, stereotyping is something we engage in when dealing with others, especially those we don’t know well.  We know we shouldn’t stereotype people, but we do it anyway.  Social psychologists are interested in topics like the origin of stereotypes, and what we can do to avoid them.

Social Psychology Explained

This video goes into detail about different theories associated with social psychology.

E. Industrial-Organizational Psychology – study of human behavior in organizations and work place

 I-O psychologists can help businesses change the workplace in ways that will make workers happier and more productive.

F. Health Psychology – factors that allow people to be healthy, recover from an illness or cope with a chronic condition

1. Biological influences – includes areas like genetic predispositions, and the influence of hormones/neurotransmitters on thoughts and behaviors.

2. Psychological influences – includes areas like our emotional responses, and how our perceptions of the world around us influences thoughts and behaviors

3. Social-cultural influences – simply being in the company of others changes our behavior.  This level of analysis looks at how culture and social structures influence how we think and behave. 

While most research psychologists specialize in one of these areas in particular, you really need to consider all three when trying to explain human cognition and behavior.  This is known as the biopsychosocial model.

G. Sport and Exercise Psychology – psychological/ mental factors that influence participation in sport, exercise and physical activity

H. Clinical Psychology – assessment/ treatment of mental illness/ disability

Counseling psychology – same, but usually treat less serious problems

In general, clinical psychologists treat people with more serious mental health issues, such as major depression and schizophrenia.  Counseling psychologists usually treat people who are functional day to day, but still experience issues in certain parts of their lives.

Clinical vs. Counseling Psychology

I. Forensic Psychology – application of psychology to legal settings

Forensic psychologists may perform tests to see if someone is competent to stand trial, they may serve as expert witnesses in court cases, etc.

IV. Careers in Psychology – Pick up PhD, dissertation, and PsyD from text

Why Is Research Important?

We often try to use psychology to improve our lives, even if we don’t realize it.  We may read self-help books to quit smoking, lose weight, or organize our lives better.  We may write in to “experts” for their opinions on how to solve personal problems.  We may simply ask friends and family for advice, or how they dealt with a similar issue in their own lives.  Because we are consumers of psychology, we need to be good consumers of psychology. 

A. The Need for Psychological Science

We often feel we intuitively know things about psychology, just from living life.  We often place a great deal of faith in our ability to make “gut decisions”, and we tend to believe that those gut feelings are correct. 

While I’m not suggesting that you should ignore your gut instincts, you also need to be aware of the limits of intuition. Let’s take a closer look at some of the common pitfalls of human intuition.

1. Hindsight Bias – the tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one should have foreseen it.  It refers to the tendency people have to view events as more predictable than they really are.  It is also known as the I-knew-it-all-along phenomenon.

More info on hindsight bias -How Hindsight Bias Affects How We View the Past

and Why Psychology Tells Us What We Already Know – Hank Green explains that hindsight bias skews our interpretation of events and information, making it seem like they were predictable or just not that surprising. This bias can cause some real problems, but the good news is, once you are aware of it, there are some things you can do to reduce its effects.

2. Overconfidence  - tend to think we know more than we do 
 

More information on overconfidence - The Overconfidence Effect and Overconfidence Bias - The overconfidence bias is our tendency to be more confident in our ability to act ethically than is objectively justified by our abilities and moral character.

3. Perceiving Order in Random Events – there is a natural human tendency to see patterns where actually none exist. The human brain is so good at perceiving patterns, we tend to believe we see patterns where none actually exist. 

a. Apophenia – perception that unrelated events/ things are related
 

More on apophenia - Being Amused by Apophenia

b. Pareidolia – perception of significant patterns/ imagines, esp. faces 
 

Type “pareidolia examples” into Google images – there are some great examples!

All of these errors common in intuition can lead us to believe our gut is smarter than it actually is. 

Luckily, scientific research is empirical – based on systematic observation
 

B. Use of Research Information
 

The goals of psychological studies are to describe, explain, predict and perhaps influence mental processes or behaviors. The scientific method helps us separate facts from opinions. 
 

C. The Process of Scientific ResearchScientific theories account for behavior by linking and integrating observations and facts into a set of principles. These principles summarize information and should lead to testable hypotheses.

• Scientific theories account for behavior by linking and integrating observations and facts into a set of principles. These principles summarize information and should lead to testable hypotheses.

• Scientific theories account for behavior by linking and integrating observations and facts into a set of principles. These principles summarize information and should lead to testable hypotheses.

1. Deductive and Inductive Reasoning

a. Deductive reasoning -Begins with hypothesis- used to reach logical conclusions about real world 

-If hypothesis is correct, then logical conclusions should also be correct

b. Inductive reasoning - empirical observations lead to new ideas
 

2. Theories and Hypotheses

a. The scientific method of inquiry begins with a theory.  In everyday life, we often use the term theory to refer to any given belief.  Psychology uses a more rigorous definition.  A theory - Set of statements used to describe a phenomenon, suggest future research

(Ex: Divorce harms achievement in kids)

In psychology, theories are used to provide a model for understanding human thought, emotions, and behaviors. For the purposes of our discussion, let’s say I’m interested in a theory that suggests divorce produces negative effects on achievement in kids.

b. A psychological theory has two key components: (1) it must describe a behavior and (2) make predictions about future behaviors.  We make those predictions in the form of a hypothesis – testable prediction; implied by theory

(Ex: kids of divorce should perform worse in school)
 

It’s basically an educated guess, based on a theory.  So my theory is that divorce has a negative impact on the achievement levels of kids – a specific prediction I could make from that is that kids whose parents are divorced will perform worse in school than kids whose parents are still married. 

It is important that a hypothesis is falsifiable –  capable of being shown to be incorrect

-Denial
 

For more on falsifiability, visit Karl Popper: Theory of Falsification

For more on theories and hypotheses, visit This is the Difference Between a Hypothesis and a Theory

II. Approaches to Research – I am covering this a bit differently than is presented in the textbook – I believe this presentation is easier to understand.

A. Descriptive Methods - seek to describe what already exists in a group or population. An example of this type of research would be an opinion poll to determine which Presidential candidate people plan to vote for in the next election. Descriptive studies do not seek to measure the effect of a variable; they seek only to describe.

1. Case study/Clinical study -in depth study of individual, small group 

Case studies often lead to testable hypotheses and allow us to study rare phenomena. Case studies should not be used to determine cause and effect, and they have limited use for making accurate predictions.  They are often not generalizable.  Generalizing –ability to apply findings of a research project to larger groups 

Without generalizability, my findings will only apply to the specific people I studied; this limits the usefulness of my study to advance the larger science.

For more on case studies, visit Case Studies- This video explores the use of case studies in different areas.

2. Naturalistic observation - observing in natural environment 
 

a. If I were interested in the dating habits of teenagers, where could I go to observe them in the wild? 

Mall
 

b. Can you think of a potential problem with trying to observe people in their natural environments? 

Hawthorne effect – people may change their behavior simply because they know they are being observed.  If you are conducting naturalistic observations, you should try to remain unnoticed. 

c. Observer bias -observers closely involved in research project; may unconsciously skew observations to fit expectations 

d. Inter-rater reliability -assesses consistency of observations by different observers

Need to verify different observers are recording data 
 

For more on naturalistic observation, visit Naturalistic Observation - This animation describes the naturalistic observation method used in psychology. This method involves the surreptitious observation of people and animals in their natural environments.

3. Survey research -Answering questions; in person, over phone, electronically, pencil and paper 
 

It’s an easy way to get a lot of information about a lot of people.  After participants answer the questions, researchers describe the responses given.

a. Wording effects - Questions should be written so they are clear and easy to comprehend.  Also researchers should be very careful of the wording they use, as different wording choices will have different effects on how people respond. 

For more on wording effects, visit Psychology and the Effects of Wording in Surveys

b. Sampling effects (These do not just apply to surveys – they apply any time we use people in our research.

1) You want your results to be true for your entire population –Everyone in group being studied. Everyone you want to apply your results to

(Ex: Teens in the US) 

I’m interested in adolescents, so I really want my research to apply to all adolescents in the US.  Is it possible for me to test all adolescents in the US?

2) Because it’s not possible, I’m going to look at a sample – a portion of the population

(Ex: Teens in south Louisiana)

3) I would like my sample to be a representative sample – has the same characteristics as the population as a whole.  A representative sample has the same ratio of males to female, the same demographics, etc.

4) Ideally, in order to do so, you would use a random assignment – in a truly random sample, each member of my population has an equal chance of being included in my study.  It’s like putting all the names of my population in a hat and drawing names at random.

5) Because it’s not feasible, I’ll end up using a convenience sample – people who happen to be on hand.  That’s another reason it’s so important to look at the results of lots of different studies before you make up your mind on a given topic.

For more on sampling effects, visit Sampling Methods in Research

4. Archival Research -use of existing records; newspapers, diaries, etc. 

5. Longitudinal and Cross-Sectional Designs

a. Longitudinal Designs -   
 

Benefits:  gives us individual and developmental trends

Downfalls:  long time to run, costly, attrition – the loss of participants over time
 

b. Cross-sectional Designs -compare several age groups to each other at the same time    
 

Benefits:  Cost and Time Efficient, Developmental Trends, limited drop outs

Downfalls:  No individual trends, cohort effects – changes in results due to when someone is born, not the developmental process.

c. Sequential Designs: study individuals of different ages over an extended period of time (combination design of the longitudinal and cross-sectional design)

For more on cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, visit Cross-Sectional and Longitudinal Designs - Learn about the two key time horizon options: cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. We unpack cross-section longitudinal designs, explore the pros and cons of each, and explain how to decide which one to use for your dissertation, thesis or research project.

C. Correlational Research - a measure of the extent to which two factors vary together.  It enables prediction of one from the other.  Correlation –

1. A correlation coefficient –a number from -1 to +1 that indicates strength/ direction of a relationship between variables 

A negative correlation - variables change in opposite directions as one increases, the other decreases

A positive correlation -variables change in same direction- both increase/ decrease together 

2. Correlation Does Not Indicate Causation – We use correlational research when we can’t manipulate directly, usually for ethical reasons.  Self-esteem studies are correlational, because I can’t go around changing people’s self-esteem; I can rate their self-esteem and then see how high or low self-esteem is related to another variable.  Beginning in the 1980’s, there was a lot of attention paid to the relationship between self-esteem and school performance.  We found that high self-esteem was positively correlated with school performance.  Does that mean that having high self-esteem causes you to do well in school? 

a. Confounding variable –something other than variable of interest that causes changes 
 

Because we don’t control variables in a correlational study, we cannot rule out the possibility that there is another factor we didn’t account for that is changing the variables we are studying. 

For more on correlation and causation, visit Correlation Does Not Imply Causation - In one minute, this video explains why correlation does indeed not imply causation in a way that ensures you won't forget it. Furthermore, you'll be able to weigh in on quasi-inevitable future "correlation vs. causation" debates in a more authoritative manner and teach your friends what you have just learned.

For more on confounding variables, visit Confounding Variables - Definition of a confounding variable, with examples.

b. Illusory correlations –people believe that relationships exist between two things when there is no relationship 
 

For more on illusory correlations, visit Illusory Correlations - In this thought-provoking video, we delve into the fascinating concept of illusory correlation. Join us as we explore how our brains are wired to find patterns, the implications of illusory correlations on stereotypes and biases, and the impact they can have on our personal decisions and judgments.

c. Confirmation bias -we accept evidence that fits out beliefs and ignore which does not 

For more on confirmation bias, visit Confirmation Bias - Whenever we encounter objective facts on an issue we look at them through the lens of our own beliefs. As a result, we see and overrate where the two intercept. The bias is strongest for emotionally charged issues or when we search for desired outcomes.

D. Causality: Conducting Experiments and Using the Data - If you want to talk about causation, you have to use experiments. 

1. The experimental method involves manipulating one variable to determine if changes in one variable cause changes in another variable. 

2. Designing an Experiment

a. Independent variable -(IV): Variable manipulated by the experimenter    

b. Dependent variable -(DV): shows any effects of IV 
 

Let’s say we are interested in the effects of a particular drug on depression. 

For more on independent and dependent variables, visit Independent and Dependent Variables - In Psych Terms we attempt to describe and define potentially confusing psychological terms while illustrating examples to best visualize it. In this video we describe the difference between Independent and Dependent Variables.

c. Because I have a hypothesis, there is a danger that I would only pay attention to data that supported my hypothesis.  One way to make sure this doesn’t happen is to use operational definitions in my research.  Operational definition – describes different variables and how they are measured

We are science that builds and expands on past research – we want to make sure that we are all talking about the same thing.  Back to our hypothesis – What would be a good operational definition of a school performance? 
 

Operational definitions allow for replication - repetition of a research study, generally with different situations and different subjects, to determine if the basic findings of the original study can be generalized to other participants and circumstances.  If I did a study on the effects of divorce on how kids perform in school, where am I going to find research participants?  Since I want my results to apply to kids in general, and not just kids in south Louisiana, I want other researchers in different areas to be able to perform the same study, and hopefully get the same results. 

Don’t ever look at one study in psychology and think that’s the final answer.  There are far too many variables for any one study to control for.  You want lots of studies that all point to the same basic answer before you accept a particular answer.

For more on operational definitions, visit Operational Definitions - This animation covers the concept of operational definitions, and uses the example of defining happiness.

For more on replication, visit The Importance of Replication

d. In order to test the effectiveness of this drug, we will need at least one experimental group –does change

We’d probably have several experimental groups, to see what dosage one would need in order for it to be effective. 

e. We would also need a control group –Does not change 
 

For more on experimental and control groups, visit Experimental and Control Groups - This short video is part of a series explaining key aspects of clinical research to the general population. It discusses the purpose of control groups in studies.

f. To make sure your experimental groups and your control group are as similar as possible, you will need to use random assignment – assigning people to groups by chance.

g. You are doing this to avoid confounding variables – anything other than the IV that causes changes in the DV.  If someone just broke up a long-term relationship, it doesn’t matter what drug I give them, their mood is going to be depressed for a while.  You can’t get rid of all confounding variables – you just do the best you can to control them. 

h. And I don’t want to accidentally let people know which group they are in, because that could lead to the placebo effect – changes in results caused by expectations, not IV
 

If people knew they were in the experimental group, they might feel better, at least in the short term, simply because they are receiving treatment. 

i. To make sure this doesn’t happen, researchers often use a double-blind study – Neither patient nor experiment knows which group P is in
 

You can contrast this with a single-blind study –P doesn’t know, but researcher does 

3. Can laboratory experiments help explain everyday life?
 

Many scientific disciplines, especially the social sciences, face a long battle to prove that their findings represent the wider population in real world situations. The experimenter intends the laboratory experiment to be a simplified reality, one in which important features can be simulated and controlled. The experiment’s purpose is not to re-create the exact behaviors of everyday life but to test theoretical principles. It is the resulting principles—not the specific findings—that help explain everyday behavior.  We are not trying to predict what people would do in very specific situations – we are trying to form theories that explain generalities about behavior, and then use those theories to make predictions.
 

This is not a failing of psychology, and it’s not unique to psychology. Medicine uses the same basic idea. 

4. Reliability and Validity

a. Reliability- measure gives consistent results
 

b. Validity -measure measures what it claims to measure

(Ex: If I measure how much you smile is that a valid measurement on how happy you are?) 
 

III. Ethics in Research

A. How do we protect the rights of people taking part in experiments?
 

1. Participation Must Be Voluntary

All ethical research must be conducted using willing participants. Study volunteers should not feel coerced, threatened or bribed into participation. This becomes especially important for researchers working at universities or prisons, where students and inmates are often encouraged to participate in experiments.
 

2. Researchers Must Obtain Informed Consent

Informed consent  -told enough to decide if they want to participate 

Consent should be documented in written form. We call these consent forms.

Sometimes, the particular experiment would suffer if people knew everything about it going into the study. In these cases, researchers may use deception –participants are misled about purpose/ aims/ etc., of research 

For example, if I’m studying racist attitudes, I might not want to be completely upfront about the aim of my study, because people would be on their guard – no one wants to be thought of as racist.  The use of deception in research is a difficult area for ethics – how can your consent be truly informed if I’ve lied to you about the purpose of my research?

3. Debriefing –at the end of the study, review experiment, answer questions 
 

Participants must be thoroughly debriefed at the end of the study. They must be given a general idea of what the researcher was investigating and why, and their part in the research should be explained. They must be told if they have been deceived and given reasons why. They must be asked if they have any questions and those questions should be answered honestly and as fully as possible.

Tuskegee Syphillis study-get details from text

4. Protection of Participants

Researchers must ensure that those taking part in research will not be caused distress. They must be protected from physical and mental harm. This means you must not embarrass, frighten, offend or ham participants. Normally, the risk of harm must be no greater than in ordinary life, i.e. participants should not be exposed to risks greater than or additional to those encountered in their normal lifestyles.

5. Researchers Must Maintain Participant Confidentiality
 

Confidentiality is an essential part of any ethical psychology research. Participants need to be guaranteed that identifying information and individual responses will not be shared with anyone who is not involved in the study.

While these guidelines provide some ethical standards for research, each study is different and may present unique challenges. Because of this, most colleges and universities have a Human Subjects Committee or Institutional Review Board  -reviews proposals for research that involves human participants 
 

These committees provide an important safeguard to ensure academic research is ethical and does not pose a risk to study participants.

 .    Human Genetics

Theory of evolution by natural selection – those suited for evolution survive and reproduce

For more on the theory of evolution, visit Theory of Evolution - Darwin and Wallace are at the heart of understanding evolution and natural selection. Today, Hank talks about their wonderful (if not seasick inducing) trips around the world.

    A.    Genetic Variation

        1.    Chromosomes -threads inside cell nucleus that carry genes (largest)

        2.    Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) - Complex molecule that contains genetic information (smallest)

        3.    Genes -genetic material, composed of DNA (medium) 

        4.    Genotype - genetic material (inherited from parents )

        5.    Phenotype -observable traits (hair color, skin, eye color) 

    B.    Gene Expression

For more on dominant and recessive alleles, visit Dominant and Recessive Inheritance - A visual explanation of the how Mendelian Inheritance works, and how children inherit autosomal recessive conditions like Cystic Fibrosis or autosomal dominant conditions like Huntingtons Chorea.

2.    Polygenic -characteristics is product of interaction of many different genes (skin, eye color)

For more on polygenic inheritance, visit Polygenic Inheritance Explained- This is a short video that gives great visualizations on how polygenic inheritance works.

        3.    Mutation -sudden, permanent change in gene (radiation, mercury, cell division)

Some mutations are harmful, like cancer, and they kill the individual.  Others, like a giraffe’s long neck, are useful, and are passed down to future generations.  Over time, if the mutation is useful enough, individuals who inherit the mutation may start to outbreed individuals who did not inherit it, and the species starts to change.

C.    Gene-Environment Interactions

        1.    Range of reaction -genes set up a range of possibilities; environment determines outcome with/in that range

I am 6’1” tall.  I obviously inherited some tall genes from my parents.  Let’s say my genes set up a range of possibilities – I could have been anywhere from 5’8” to 6’3”. If I had been sickly, or undernourished as a child, I could have ended up shorter.  But Mom and Dad made sure I ate well and got all my Flintstone vitamins, and I ended up pretty tall!  My genes set up a range of possibilities, and my environment determined where along that range I actually grew.

2.    Genetic environmental correlation –genes influence environment and environment influence expression of genes 

There are 3 ways this can happen (Wikipedia)

a.    Passive gene–environment correlation - refers to the association between the genotype a child inherits from their parents and the environment in which the child is raised. Parents create a home environment that is influenced by their own heritable characteristics. Biological parents also pass on genetic material to their children.

b.    Evocative (or reactive) gene–environment correlation  - happens when an individual's (heritable) behavior evokes an environmental response. For example, the association between marital conflict and depression may reflect the tensions that arise when engaging with a depressed spouse rather than a causal effect of marital conflict on risk for depression.

c.    Active gene–environment correlation - occurs when an individual possesses a heritable inclination to select environmental exposure. For example, individuals who are characteristically extroverted may seek out very different social environments than those who are shy and withdrawn.

For more on genetic environmental correlations, visit Genetic Environment Correlations- This video explains the 3 mechanisms involved.

3.     Epigenetics –studies how same genotype expressed in different ways (identical twins with different outcomes) 

For more on epigenetics, visit Epigenetics Explained- A short movie which describes why the identical twins Lucky Lyle and Troubled Tim end up with totally different personalities. Is it environment or genetics? Or perhaps both?

II.    Cells of the Nervous System –allows for communication in brain and rest of body 

A.    Neuron –basic unit of nervous system (receives/ sends messages)

They are held in place and supported by glial cells – scaffolding for neurons; may aid in memory; clear debris (junk)

    B.    Neuron Structure

a.    Semipermeable membrane - small and uncharged molecules can pass through

b.    Dendrites –recipes info; transports to cell body 

c.    Cell body – AKA soma -keeps neuron alive; decides if it will fire actin potential- threshold 

d.    Axon –carries impulse away from cell body 

They commonly divide at the end into several terminal buttons. 

d.    Synaptic vesicles -sacs of neurotransmitters

Synaptic vesicles contain neurotransmitters - released by transmitting neuron; cause changes in receiving neuron

e.    Myelin sheath – fatty insulation on axons and speeds up action potentials (like pearls on a string)

There will be sections of the axon where the myelin sheath is very thin or absent – Nodes of Ranvier. 

For more on parts of the neuron, visit The Neuron Explained - In this video, the narrator discusses the neuron, briefly touching on all of the parts of a neuron. They describe how a signal travels from the dendrites of a neuron, down the axon, and to the axon terminals to communicate with another neuron through the release of neurotransmitter.

C.    Neural Communication

1.    The Neural Impulse

a.    Neurons speak to each other, or in some cases to muscles or glands, in an electrical and chemical language.  When a nerve cell is stimulated, a change in electrical potential occurs between the inside and the outside of the cell. 

Action potential –this is a very simplified definition – the action potential is the impulse that travels from the cell body to the end of the axon.  It actually involves changes in the electrical potential of the membrane of the axon, but we don’t need that level of specificity for this course. 

b.    When the impulse reaches the axon terminal’s tip, it must get the message to another cell.  Neurons do not directly touch each other.  Instead, they are separated by a tiny space called the synaptic cleft- tiny space between neurons

Because a neuron’s axon can may hundreds or even thousands of terminals, a single neuron may have synaptic connections with a great many others.  As a result, the number of communication links in the nervous system runs into trillions or perhaps even the quadrillions. 

c.    At this point, synaptic vesicles in the terminal buttons open and spill neurotransmitters into the synapse.

Like sailors carrying a message from one island to another, these molecules then cross the synaptic cleft. 

d.    When they reach the other side, the neurotransmitter molecules briefly bind with receptors – molecules in membrane of receiving neuron

Neurotransmitters must fit these sites much like a key fits a lock – the neurotransmitter has to be the correct physical shape in order to bind with a particular receptor.

Neurotransmitters can have basically 2 types of effects:  excitatory, meaning the next neuron is more likely to fire an action potential, and inhibitory, meaning the next neuron is less likely to fire an action potential.

 e.    All-or-none response  -neurons either fires or it doesn’t there is no partial fire

 f.    Reuptake  -extra neurotransmitters reabsorbed by releasing neuron (like putting Cheetos back in a bag)

This is where a lot of psychoactive drugs have their effect.  Some prevent the reuptake process; this causes neurotransmitters to remain in the synaptic cleft longer, so the receiving neuron keeps getting the original message for a longer period of time. 

g.    Once the neuron fires an action potential, it enters a refractory period – it cannot fire another action potential until it undoes the physical changes caused by the previous action potential.

For more information on how neurons communicate, visit How Neurons Communicate – This is a fairly short video that helps with visualizing how neuronal communication happens.

D.    Neurotransmitters and Drugs - Neurotransmitters exist in the brain, the spinal cord, the peripheral nerves (those outside the brain and spinal cord), and certain glands.  Through their effects on specific nerve circuits, they can affect mood, memory, and well-being.  The nature of the effect depends on the level of the neurotransmitter, its location, and the type of receptor that binds with it.  We can also be affected by chemicals we ingest – psychotropic medications - affect behavior, mood, thoughts, or perception

Most of us are already familiar with psychotropic medications that affect depression or anxiety.

1.    Let’s take a look at some of the better-understood neurotransmitters.

a.    Acetylcholine –muscle action/ memory; increased arousal/ cognition

b.    Dopamine –mood/ sleeping/ learning; pleasure/ suppressed appetite 

c.     GABA – brain function/ sleep; decreased anxiety/ tension

d.    Glutamate – major excitatory neurotransmitter ; released by about 90% of the brain’s neurons.

e.    Norepinephrine – heart/ intestines/ alertness; increased arousal/ suppressed appetite

f.    Serotonin –mood/ sleep; modulate mood/ suppressed appetite 

Harmful effects can occur when neurotransmitter levels are too high or too low.  Abnormal GABA levels have been implicated in sleeping and eating disorders and in convulsive disorders, like epilepsy.  People with Alzheimer disease lose brain cells responsible for producing acetylcholine and other neurotransmitters, and these deficits help account for their devastating memory problems.  A loss of cells that produce dopamine is responsible for the tremors and rigidity of Parkinson’s disease.  In multiple sclerosis, immune cells overproduce glutamate, which damages or kills glial cells that normally make myelin. 

Pinning down the relationship between neurotransmitter abnormalities and behavioral or physical abnormalities is really tricky.  Each neurotransmitter plays several roles, and the functions of different neurotransmitters often overlaps.  And it is always possible that there is something about a particular disorder that produces changes in neurotransmitter levels, and not the other way around. 

2.    How Drugs and Other Chemicals Alter Neurotransmission - Also keep in mind that other substances can affect neurotransmitters.

a.    Agonists –chemically similar; bins to receptors sites and produce same effect

Ex:  Nicotine acts as an agonist for acetylcholine, meaning that smoking can make you more alert. Don’t smoke.

b.    Antagonists –similar enough to sit on receptor sites and block action of neurotransmitters 

Ex:  Naloxone acts as an antagonist for opioids – it is often used to stop a heroin overdose.

For more information on neurotransmitters, visit The Neurotransmitter Song – It’s kind of a silly video, but does a good job of covering many neurotransmitters!

III.    Parts of The Nervous System - The purpose of the nervous system is to take in information, process it, produce responses to the environment, and coordinate different cells.  There are billions and billions of nerve cells working together to make you able to live within your environment.  They can be divided into two main sections:

A.    Central Nervous System – CNS – brain and spinal cord

B.    Peripheral Nervous System – PNS – everything else

1.    Sensory neurons – send information from the rest of the body to the CNS.

Ex:  Picking something up – nerves are sending information to your brain about the size, shape, texture, temperature, and weight of the object.

2.    Motor neurons – carry information from the CNS to the rest of the body.

Ex:  You realize some part of your body itches – your brain sends the order to scratch to your arm and hand.

The peripheral system can be divided into two categories –

3.    Somatic nervous system – AKA the skeletal nervous system – connected to sensory receptors and skeletal muscles

When you are purposefully doing something, like writing notes or raising your hand to ask a question, you are using the somatic nervous system.

4.    Autonomic nervous system – regulates functioning blood vessels, glands, and internal organs

When your heart beats faster because you’re nervous, or when you blush because you are embarrassed, you are using the autonomic nervous system.

The autonomic nervous system can also be divided into 2 main divisions =

a.    Sympathetic nervous system – fight or flight like an accelerator on a car

b.    Parasympathetic nervous system – rest and digest like brakes on a car slows you down like a parachute

For more information on divisions of the nervous system, visit https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q3OITaAZLNc – This video provides a concise explanation of the nervous system.

IV.     The Brain and Spinal Cord

A.    The Spinal Cord –extension of brain 

Spinal reflexes behaviors controlled by spinal cord

(Ex: like dropping something hot)

For more detail on the spinal cord, visit The Spinal Cord - In this video, Dr Mike explains the structure and function of the spinal cord.

Neuroplasticity -adaptability of NS 

For more on neuroplasticity, visit Neuroplasticity - This inspiring animation demonstrates how we all have the ability to learn and change by rewiring our brains.

B.    The Two Hemispheres - Now we are looking at the most recently evolved part of the brain – the cerebral cortex – outer layer of brain; thinking

1.    Lateralization - hemispheres have somewhat separate areas of specialization

2.    Corpus callosum -large band of neutral fiber connecting hemispheres; carries messages 

For more on lateralization and the corpus callosum, visit Lateralization- We used to think having a distinct left and right brain was something unique to humans. But brain lateralization has now been found in everything from chickens to spiders!

C.    Forebrain Structures –largest part of the brain 

    Forebrain structures also include areas below the cerebral cortex – subcortical structures.

        Lobes of the Brain

1.    Frontal lobes – the front of the brain, just under the skull in the forehead.  Contains:

a.    Motor cortex – produces voluntary movement (emotion/ plans/ creativity/ initiative)

For more on the motor cortex, visit The Motor Cortex – This video describes the location and functions of the primary motor cortex and the nonprimary motor cortex, which is often divided into the supplementary motor cortex and premotor cortex.

b.    Prefrontal cortex - most recently evolved (reasoning, decision making, planning)

For more on the prefrontal cortex, visit The Prefrontal Cortex - The prefrontal cortex (PFC) is the area of the brain that is anterior to, or in front of, the motor cortex. It is most commonly associated with executive functions: cognitive processes that involve controlling short-sighted behavior to act with a goal in mind.

Thanks to the horrible experience of one man in particular, we have known since the mid-1800’s that the frontal lobes, and the prefrontal cortex in particular, had something to do with personality.

There’s lingering controversy over Phineas – to learn more, visit Phineas Gage, Neuroscience's Most Famous Patient

    c.    Broca’s area -speech production 

For more on Broca’s area, visit Broca's Area - Broca's area is a region in the frontal lobe that is thought to play an important role in language production, although its precise linguistic functions are still a bit unclear.

2.    Parietal lobes – top of head, towards back

They contain the somatosensory cortex – info about touch, pain, pressure, temperature

For more on the somatosensory cortex, visit The Somatosensory Cortex - The primary somatosensory cortex is responsible for processing somatic sensations, or sensations from the body that include touch, proprioception (i.e. the position of the body in space), nociception (i.e. pain), and temperature.

3.    Temporal lobes –around temples of head 

    a.    Auditory cortex - processes sounds

    b.    Wernicke’s area – language processing

For more on Wernicke’s area, visit Wernicke's Area - Wernicke's area is a region in the cerebral cortex that historically has been considered important to language comprehension and the production of meaningful speech.

4.     Occipital lobes – back of head

    Primary visual cortex -processes visual information 

    C.    Other Areas of The Forebrain

1.    Thalamus –traffic officer for senses decides where to send info to the brain

As sensory messages come into the brain, the thalamus directs them to the higher areas.  Sensory messages relating to the sunset you are watching are routed to the vision areas of the brain.  Sensory messages relating to the song you are listening to are routed to the auditory areas of the brain. 

The only sense that completely bypasses the thalamus is that of smell, which has its own private switching station, the olfactory bulb.  The olfactory bulb lies near areas involved in emotion.  That may explain why certain odors are so attached to very vivid recollections.

My grandmother was British.  I spent a lot of time in Nan and PawPaw’s house growing up, especially in the kitchen.  Her kitchen smelled like wet teabags and Comet cleanser.  Now when I smell those things, it transports me back to her kitchen – I can remember tiny details of a room I haven’t been in in over 20 years.  Do any of you have a smell that is particularly evocative?

For more on the thalamus, visit The Thalamus

2.    Limbic system – structures involved with emotions and motivated behaviors

For more on the limbic system, visit The Limbic System - The limbic system is the term for various parts of the brain involved in emotions such as fear, aggression, and attraction, and behaviors related to these emotions, as well as memory, learning, and senses.

a.    Amygdala – evaluates sensory information decides whether to approach or withdraw

It instantly assesses danger, and plays an important role in mediating anxiety and depression – PET scans find that depressed and anxious people show increased activity in this structure.  Also involved with forming and retrieving emotional memories. 

For more on the amygdala, visit The Amygdala - A neuroscientist gives a short primer on the brain’s emotional processor.

b.    Hypothalamus – drives associate with survival; of individual/ species; such as hunger/ thirst/ reproduction

For more on the hypothalamus, visit The Hypothalamus

c.    Hippocampus – helps transfer info from short- term to long-term memory

For more on the hippocampus, visit Memory, Learning, and Emotion: The Hippocampus

Henry Molaison – when I was an undergraduate and graduate student, he was just known by his initials H.M.  We called him Hippocampus Man.

For more on Henry Molaison, visit Remembering Henry Molaison

D.    Midbrain and Hindbrain Structures

1.    Midbrain -structures between forebrain and hindbrain

a.    Reticular Formation – screens incoming information; alerts higher centers if something needs attention (damage can result in coma)

2.    Hindbrain -transition between spinal cord and brain 

a.    Medulla – unconscious body processes

It is in the brainstem where our nerves to and from one side of the body cross over to the other side of the brain.  In other words, the left hemisphere of your brain controls the right side of your body, and vice versa.

For more on the medulla, visit Overview of the Medulla

        3.    Pons –sleeping/ walking/ dreaming (keeps you relatively motionless while you sleep) 

For more on the pons, visit The Pons

4.    Cerebellum – on top of the brain stem, at the back of the brain.  AKA the “lesser brain” – contributes to sense of balance, and coordinates muscles so that movement is smooth and precise.  If your cerebellum were damaged, you’d be very clumsy and uncoordinated.  It is also involved with remembering simple skills and acquired reflexes.  Also plays a part in more complex cognitive tasks such as analyzing sensory information, solving problems, and understanding words. 

For more on the cerebellum, visit The Cerebellum – This video describes the location of the cerebellum in the nervous system and its role in facilitating movement.

E.    Brain Imaging - The brain itself doesn’t give a lot of clues about how and where different functions are carried out.  If you’ve ever seen a disembodied brain, you’ll know that it looks like a large, convoluted lump of clay.  Studies of localization of brain function used to be very primitive.  We could study the behavioral changes of people who had suffered some type of brain damage.   We also used lesion studies in animals.  In lesion studies – a portion of the brain is damaged or removed, and then behavior is observed to see what changes. Thankfully, with modern methods, we no longer have to rely on inflicting brain damage.

1.    Electroencepahlogram – EEG – Electrodes are usually pasted or taped onto the scalp.  They detect the activity of neurons in different parts of the brain.   The electrodes are connected by wires to a machine that translates the electrical output from the brain into wavy lines on a sheet of paper or visual patterns on a screen.  That’s why we call the electrical patterns of the brain “brain waves”. 

A standard EEG is useful but not very precise – it reflects the activity of many cells at once.  It’s kind of like standing outside of a sports stadium – you know when something is happening, but you can’t be sure what it is or who is doing it. 

For more on EEGs, visit EEG - Electroencephalography, or EEG, is a technique used to measure the electrical activity of the brain. This video discusses the basics of EEG like what it measures, how it’s used, and some strengths and limitations.

2.    Positron –emission tomography – PET scan – records biochemical changes in the brain as they are happening.  One type of PET scan takes advantage of the fact that nerve cells convert glucose into energy.  A researcher can inject someone with glucose or a chemical similar to glucose that has been tagged with a harmless radioactive element.  The glucose then accumulates in brain areas that are particularly active and are therefore using more glucose than other brain areas.  A display screen will show different colors to reflect different levels of glucose usage.  PET scans can show researchers which areas are most active when we listen to music, think about something sad, work on a math problem, or when we shift our attention from one task to another. 

For more on PET scans, visit Positron emission tomography scan - Mayo Clinic

3.    Magnetic resonance imaging – MRI – powerful magnetic fields and radio frequencies are used to produce vibrations in the nuclei of atoms that make up our organs.  The vibrations are then picked up as signals.  A computer analyzes the signals, taking into account their strength and duration, and converts them into a high-contrast picture of the organ.   An ultrafast version of the MRI, called functional MRI (fMRI) – can capture brain changes many times a second as someone performs a task, such as reading a sentence or solving a puzzle. 

For more on MRIs, visit MRI - Mayo Clinic

For more on fMRIs, visit fMRI

4.    Transcranial magnetic stimulation – TMS – delivers a large current through a wire coil placed on the head.  The current produces a strong magnetic field (about 40,000 times greater than the magnetic field of the Earth), causing neurons under the coil to fire.  It can be used to produce motor responses like making your thumb twitch or your knee jerk.  It can also be used to briefly inactivate an area and allow researchers to observe the resulting changes in behavior.  In this way, it acts like a non-damaging lesion study.

For more on TMS, visit Transcranial magnetic stimulation - Mayo Clinic

Remember that while these methods can tell us where an activity is occurring, they cannot tell us how or why. 

V.    The Endocrine System

Your nervous system produces neurotransmitters to deliver messages.  There is also another chemical messaging system – the endocrine system – series of glands throughout body; produce and release hormones

For more information on the endocrine system, visit The Endocrine System – This video covers many major glands and hormones.

    Hormones -chemicals released by glands; have direct and indirect effect on body shape, functioning, etc. (not always chemically distinct from neurotransmitters)

Hormones have dozens of jobs, from promoting growth to regulating metabolism.  Neurotransmitters are not always chemically distinct; the two classifications are like clubs that have some of the same members.   For example, norepinephrine belongs to both categories – it depends on where in the body the chemical is located and what it is doing to decide if it’s considered a hormone or a neurotransmitter. 

A.     Major Glands – I really only expect you to know one of these  - the pituitary gland is often called the master gland – it releases hormones that have direct effects; but its activity also affects the activity of other glands.

    B.    Specific Hormones and Their Effects

1.    Melatonin –biological rhythms; promotes sleep 

For more on melatonin, visit Melatonin - Mayo Clinic

2.    Oxytocin –with vasopressin, promotes attachment/ trust (contributes to relationships) 

For more on oxytocin, visit Effects of Oxytocin

3.    Adrenal hormones –fight or flight

Cortisol: Increases blood sugar, energy

Epinephrine and norepinephrine: increases arousal levels and increase blood pressure