What does the prefix 'angio-' refer to?; Vessel What is angiotensin?; A substance that constricts blood vessels. What does the prefix 'ather-' refer to?; Porridge What is atherosclerosis?; Deposits of plaque in arteries. What does the prefix 'brady-' refer to?; Slow What is bradycardia?; Abnormally slow heartbeat. What does the prefix 'diastol-' refer to?; Dilation What is diastolic pressure?; Blood pressure when the ventricle of the heart is relaxed. What does the prefix 'edem-' refer to?; Swelling What is edema?; Accumulation of fluids in the tissues that causes them to swell. What does the suffix '-gram' refer to?; Something written What is an electrocardiogram?; Recording of the electrical changes in the myocardium during a cardiac cycle. What does the prefix 'lun-' refer to?; Moon What is a semilunar valve?; Valve with crescent-shaped flaps. What does the prefix 'myo-' refer to?; Muscle What is myocardium?; Muscle tissue within the wall of the heart. What does the prefix 'papill-' refer to?; Nipple What is a papillary muscle?; Small mound of muscle projecting into a ventricle of the heart. What does the prefix 'phleb-' refer to?; Vein What is phlebitis?; Inflammation of a vein. What does the prefix 'scler-' refer to?; Hard What is arteriosclerosis?; Loss of elasticity and hardening of a blood vessel wall. What does the prefix 'syn-' refer to?; Together What is a syncytium?; Mass of merging cells that act together. What does the prefix 'systol-' refer to?; Contraction What is systolic pressure?; Blood pressure resulting from a single ventricular contraction. What does the prefix 'tachy-' refer to?; Rapid What is tachycardia?; Abnormally fast heartbeat. How many liters of blood does the heart pump through the body each day?; 7,000 liters. How many times does the heart contract in an average lifetime?; 2.5 billion times. In what order does the heart pump blood through the blood vessels?; Arteries → arterioles → capillaries → venules → veins → back to heart. What components make up the cardiovascular system?; The heart and all blood vessels. What does the term 'cardiovascular' refer to?; Both heart and blood vessels. What is the function of the heart's pumping action?; To transport blood through blood vessels. How many circuits do blood vessels form in the cardiovascular system?; Two circuits. What are the two circuits formed by blood vessels in the cardiovascular system?; Pulmonary Circuit and Systemic Circuit. What does the pulmonary circuit do?; Transports oxygen-poor blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. What happens to the blood in the lungs during the pulmonary circuit?; Blood picks up O2 and drops off CO2. What does the systemic circuit do?; Transports oxygen-rich blood from the heart to all body cells and back to the heart. What does the blood deliver to cells in the systemic circuit?; Nutrients. What does the blood remove from cells in the systemic circuit?; Wastes. Which side of the heart contains oxygen-rich blood?; The left side. Which side of the heart contains oxygen-poor blood?; The right side. What are the two circuits through which blood runs?; Pulmonary circuit to lungs and systemic circuit to body cells. What is the function of the pulmonary circuit?; To carry blood to the lungs. What is the function of the systemic circuit?; To carry blood to body cells. What is the shape of the heart?; Cone-shaped. Where is the heart located?; In the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity, superior to the diaphragm. How many chambers does the heart have?; Four chambers. What are the upper chambers of the heart called?; Atria. What are the lower chambers of the heart called?; Ventricles. What is the primary function of the ventricles?; Pumping action. How does heart size vary?; Heart size varies with body size. Where is the heart located?; The heart lies in the thoracic cavity. What is the average size of the heart?; 14 cm long and 9 cm wide. Where is the heart located in relation to the sternum?; Posterior to the sternum. Where is the heart located in relation to the lungs?; Medial to the lungs. Where is the heart located in relation to the vertebral column?; Anterior to the vertebral column. Where does the base of the heart lie?; Beneath the 2nd rib. Where does the apex of the heart lie?; At the 5th intercostal space. Where is the heart located in the human body?; The heart is located in the thoracic cavity, between the lungs, behind the sternum, and above the diaphragm. What structure is directly above the heart?; The sternum. What is the base of the heart?; The base of the heart is the broader, upper portion of the heart. What is the apex of the heart?; The apex of the heart is the pointed, lower tip of the heart. What structure is located below the heart?; The diaphragm. What does the pericardium cover?; The heart and large blood vessels. What is the fibrous pericardium?; The outer layer that surrounds the double-layered serous membrane. Where is the parietal pericardium located?; Deep to the fibrous pericardium; it is the outer layer of the serous membrane. What is another name for the visceral pericardium?; Epicardium. What is the visceral pericardium?; The inner layer of the serous membrane, attached to the surface of the heart. What are the three distinct layers of the heart wall?; Epicardium, Myocardium, Endocardium. What is another name for the Epicardium?; Visceral pericardium. Which layer of the heart wall is the outer layer?; Epicardium. Which layer of the heart wall is the middle layer?; Myocardium. What type of tissue composes the Myocardium?; Cardiac muscle tissue. Which layer of the heart wall is the thickest?; Myocardium. Which layer of the heart wall forms the inner lining of all heart chambers?; Endocardium. Which layer of the heart wall is the thinnest?; Endocardium. What is the composition of the epicardium (visceral pericardium)?; Serous membrane of connective tissue covered with epithelium and including blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers. What function does the epicardium serve?; Forms a protective outer covering; secretes serous fluid. What is the myocardium composed of?; Cardiac muscle tissue separated by connective tissue and including blood capillaries, lymph capillaries, and nerve fibers. What is the primary function of the myocardium?; Contracts to pump blood from the heart chambers. What is the composition of the endocardium?; Membrane of epithelium and underlying connective tissue, including blood vessels. What function does the endocardium serve?; Forms a protective inner lining of the chambers and valves. How many chambers does the heart have?; Four chambers (2 atria and 2 ventricles). What are the characteristics of the atria in the heart?; The atria are thin-walled upper chambers that receive blood returning to the heart. What are auricles and their function?; Auricles are flap-like projections from the atria that allow atrial expansion. What are the characteristics of the ventricles in the heart?; The ventricles are thick-walled lower chambers that pump blood into arteries. What is the function of the right atrium?; The right atrium receives blood returning from the systemic circuit (from the superior and inferior vena cavae and coronary sinus) and pumps blood to the right ventricle. What is the function of the right ventricle?; The right ventricle receives blood from the right atrium and pumps blood to the lungs. What is the function of the left atrium?; The left atrium receives blood from the pulmonary veins and pumps blood to the left ventricle. What is the function of the left ventricle?; The left ventricle receives blood from the left atrium and pumps blood to the systemic circuit. What is the location of the tricuspid valve?; Right atrioventricular orifice. What is the function of the tricuspid valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the right ventricle into the right atrium during ventricular contraction. Where is the pulmonary valve located?; Entrance to pulmonary trunk. What does the pulmonary valve prevent?; Prevents blood from moving from the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle during ventricular relaxation. Where is the mitral valve located?; Left atrioventricular orifice. What is the function of the mitral valve?; Prevents blood from moving from the left ventricle into the left atrium during ventricular contraction. Where is the aortic valve located?; Entrance to aorta. What does the aortic valve prevent?; Prevents blood from moving from the aorta into the left ventricle during ventricular relaxation. What is the function of the superior vena cava?; It carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the right atrium of the heart. Where does the right pulmonary artery transport blood?; It transports deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. What is the role of the pulmonary valve?; It prevents backflow of blood from the pulmonary trunk into the right ventricle. What is the function of the tricuspid valve?; It prevents backflow of blood from the right ventricle to the right atrium. Where does the left pulmonary artery transport blood?; It transports deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. What is the function of the aortic valve?; It prevents backflow of blood from the aorta into the left ventricle. What is the role of the left atrium?; It receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. What is the function of the mitral (bicuspid) valve?; It prevents backflow of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium. What is the function of the papillary muscles?; They contract to prevent inversion or prolapse of the atrioventricular valves during ventricular contraction. What is the role of the interventricular septum?; It separates the left and right ventricles of the heart. What is the function of the inferior vena cava?; It carries deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the right atrium of the heart. Where does the left ventricle pump blood?; It pumps oxygenated blood into the aorta and throughout the body. What is the function of the right ventricle?; It pumps deoxygenated blood into the pulmonary trunk and arteries. What is the function of the left pulmonary veins?; They carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. What is the function of the tricuspid valve in the heart?; The tricuspid valve regulates blood flow between the right atrium and right ventricle. Where is the mitral (bicuspid) valve located?; The mitral (bicuspid) valve is located between the left atrium and left ventricle. What is the role of the aortic valve?; The aortic valve controls blood flow from the left ventricle into the aorta and the rest of the body. What does the pulmonary valve do?; The pulmonary valve controls blood flow from the right ventricle into the pulmonary arteries, which carry blood to the lungs for oxygenation. Which valve is found between the right atrium and right ventricle?; The tricuspid valve. Which valve is situated between the left atrium and left ventricle?; The mitral (bicuspid) valve. Which heart valve is responsible for preventing backflow into the left ventricle?; The aortic valve. Which heart valve is responsible for preventing backflow into the right ventricle?; The pulmonary valve. What structures are labeled in the photo of the human tricuspid valve?; Right atrium, cusps of tricuspid valve, chordae tendineae, interventricular septum, papillary muscles, and muscular ridges. What structures surround the origins of the pulmonary trunk and aorta, and the orifices between the atria and ventricles?; Rings of dense connective tissue. What is the function of the rings of dense connective tissue in the heart?; They provide attachments for heart valves and muscle fibers and prevent excess dilation of heart chambers during contraction. What do the rings of dense connective tissue and other fibrous masses in the interventricular septum make up?; The skeleton of the heart. What is the role of the heart's fibrous skeleton?; To provide structural support and prevent excess dilation of heart chambers during contraction. Where are the fibrous rings located in the heart?; Surrounding the origins of the pulmonary trunk and aorta, and the orifices between the atria and ventricles. What are the main components of the heart's skeleton?; Rings of dense connective tissue and other fibrous masses in the interventricular septum. Where does blood enter the heart from the systemic circuit?; Venae cavae and coronary sinus. Which chamber of the heart receives blood from the systemic circuit?; Right atrium. Which valve does blood pass through from the right atrium to the right ventricle?; Tricuspid valve. Where does blood go after leaving the right ventricle?; Pulmonary trunk. Into which vessels does the pulmonary trunk divide?; Pulmonary arteries. Where does blood go after passing through the pulmonary arteries?; Pulmonary capillaries in the lungs. Which vessels carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart?; Pulmonary veins. Which chamber of the heart receives oxygenated blood from the lungs?; Left atrium. Which valve does blood pass through from the left atrium to the left ventricle?; Mitral (bicuspid) valve. Where does blood go after leaving the left ventricle?; Aorta. From the aorta, where does blood travel?; To the systemic circuit. What is the function of alveolar capillaries?; Exchange of gases (O2 and CO2) in the lungs. What is the role of systemic capillaries?; Exchange of nutrients, gases, and wastes with tissue cells. What arteries supply blood to the tissues of the heart?; The left and right coronary arteries. What are the first two branches of the aorta?; The coronary arteries. Where do the coronary arteries originate from?; They are the first two branches of the aorta. What are the two main arteries that supply blood to the heart?; Right coronary artery and left coronary artery. Which artery branches off from the right coronary artery to supply the ventricular walls?; Posterior interventricular artery. Which artery branches off from the right coronary artery to supply the walls of the right atrium and right ventricle?; Marginal artery. Which artery branches off from the left coronary artery to supply the walls of the left atrium and left ventricle?; Circumflex artery. Which artery branches off from the left coronary artery to supply the ventricular walls?; Anterior interventricular artery. Where do the myocardial capillaries in the ventricular walls drain into?; Cardiac veins. Where do the cardiac veins drain into?; Coronary sinus. Where does the coronary sinus drain into?; Right atrium. What is the function of the aorta?; The aorta is the main artery that carries blood from the heart to the rest of the body. Where is the superior vena cava located and what is its function?; The superior vena cava is located at the top of the heart and it carries deoxygenated blood from the upper half of the body to the right atrium. What is the role of the right pulmonary artery?; The right pulmonary artery carries deoxygenated blood from the right ventricle to the lungs. What is the function of the left pulmonary veins?; The left pulmonary veins carry oxygenated blood from the lungs to the left atrium. Describe the location and function of the pulmonary trunk.; The pulmonary trunk is located at the base of the right ventricle and it carries deoxygenated blood to the lungs. What is the function of the right atrium?; The right atrium receives deoxygenated blood from the body through the superior and inferior vena cava. What is the role of the left atrium?; The left atrium receives oxygenated blood from the lungs via the pulmonary veins. Where is the right ventricle located and what is its function?; The right ventricle is located on the lower right side of the heart and it pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs via the pulmonary artery. What is the function of the left ventricle?; The left ventricle pumps oxygenated blood to the rest of the body through the aorta. Describe the function of the coronary arteries.; The coronary arteries supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle. What is the apex of the heart?; The apex of the heart is the pointed end of the heart that is directed downward, forward, and to the left. What is the function of the great cardiac vein?; The great cardiac vein collects deoxygenated blood from the heart muscle and returns it to the right atrium. Where is the left coronary artery located and what is its function?; The left coronary artery is located on the left side of the heart and supplies blood to the left side of the heart muscle. What is the role of the anterior interventricular artery?; The anterior interventricular artery supplies blood to the front of the left side of the heart. Describe the function of the circumflex branch of the coronary artery.; The circumflex branch supplies blood to the left atrium and the side and back of the left ventricle. What is the cardiac cycle?; The events of a heartbeat. How do the heart chambers function during the cardiac cycle?; In a coordinated manner. What happens during atrial systole?; Atria contract while ventricles relax (ventricular diastole). What happens during ventricular systole?; Ventricles contract while atria relax (atrial diastole). What is atrial systole?; The contraction of the atria. What is ventricular diastole?; The relaxation of the ventricles. What is ventricular systole?; The contraction of the ventricles. What is atrial diastole?; The relaxation of the atria. What is a heart transplant?; Replacement of most of a failing heart with a donor heart. What is a Left Ventricular Assist Device (LVAD)?; A mechanical half-heart, used in some cases temporarily, until a donor heart is available. What is an implantable replacement heart made of?; Titanium and plastic. In what situation is an implantable replacement heart used?; In people that cannot have a heart transplant and do not have long to live. What is the potential future use of stem cell technology in cardiac care?; Stem cell technology may allow 'stem cell heart patches' in the future. How is cardiac muscle tissue now being cultured?; From altered somatic cells or from stem cells. What happens to the pressure in the heart chambers during a cardiac cycle?; The pressure in the heart chambers rises and falls. What causes the heart valves to open and close during the cardiac cycle?; Pressure changes in the heart chambers. What happens to the ventricles during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; The ventricles are relaxed. Which valves are open and which are closed during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; The A-V valves are open and the semilunar valves are closed. What percentage of blood flows passively from the atria into the ventricles during atrial systole and ventricular diastole?; About 70% of blood. What happens to the remaining 30% of blood during atrial systole?; Atrial systole pushes the remaining 30% of blood into the ventricles, causing ventricular pressure to increase. What happens to the A-V valves during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; The A-V valves close. What prevents the cusps of the valves from bulging too far backward into the atria during ventricular systole?; The chordae tendineae. What happens to the atria during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; The atria relax. Where does blood flow into the atria from during ventricular systole and atrial diastole?; From the venae cavae and pulmonary veins. What causes the semilunar valves to open during ventricular systole?; The increase in ventricular pressure. Where does blood flow after the semilunar valves open during ventricular systole?; Into the pulmonary trunk and aorta. What does a heartbeat through a stethoscope sound like?; Lubb-dupp. What causes the heart sounds heard through a stethoscope?; Closing of heart valves and vibrations associated with a sudden slowing of blood flow during contraction/relaxation of chambers. What is the first heart sound called?; Lubb. When does the 'lubb' sound occur?; During ventricular systole. Which heart valves are associated with the 'lubb' sound?; The A-V valves. What is the second heart sound called?; Dupp. When does the 'dupp' sound occur?; During ventricular diastole. Which heart valves are associated with the 'dupp' sound?; The pulmonary and aortic semilunar valves. What is a heart murmur?; An abnormal heart sound derived from incomplete closure of cusps of a valve. Where can the sounds of the aortic valve be heard?; In the aortic area, located at the second intercostal space at the right sternal border. Where can the sounds of the pulmonary valve be heard?; In the pulmonary area, located at the second intercostal space at the left sternal border. Where can the sounds of the tricuspid valve be heard?; In the tricuspid area, located at the fourth intercostal space at the left sternal border. Where can the sounds of the mitral valve be heard?; In the mitral area, located at the fifth intercostal space at the midclavicular line. What type of networks do cardiac muscle cells form?; Branching networks. What is the role of intercalated discs in cardiac muscle cells?; They contain gap junctions, allowing action potentials to spread through a network of cells. What is a functional syncytium in cardiac muscle fibers?; A mass of merging cells that function as a unit. Where is the atrial syncytium located?; In the atrial walls. Where is the ventricular syncytium located?; In the ventricular walls. What is the cardiac conduction system?; A group of clumps and strands of specialized cardiac muscle tissue, which initiates and distributes impulses throughout the myocardium. What is the function of the cardiac conduction system?; It coordinates the events of the cardiac cycle. What is the first component of the cardiac conduction system?; SA node. What is the role of the SA node in the cardiac conduction system?; It initiates the impulse that starts the cardiac cycle. After the SA node, where does the impulse travel in the cardiac conduction system?; Atrial syncytium. What follows the atrial syncytium in the cardiac conduction pathway?; Junctional fibers. What is the next component after the junctional fibers in the cardiac conduction system?; AV node. What is the function of the AV node?; It delays the impulse before it passes to the ventricles. What follows the AV node in the cardiac conduction system?; AV bundle. What follows the AV bundle in the cardiac conduction system?; Bundle branches. What is the next component after the bundle branches?; Purkinje fibers. What is the final component in the cardiac conduction system?; Ventricular syncytium. What is the role of the SA (Sinoatrial) Node in the cardiac conduction system?; The SA Node acts as the pacemaker and initiates rhythmic contractions of the heart. What is the function of the Internodal Atrial Muscle?; It conducts impulses from the SA node to the atria. What do Junctional Fibers do in the cardiac conduction system?; They conduct impulses from the SA node to the AV node. What is the purpose of the AV (Atrioventricular) Node?; The AV Node conducts impulses to the AV Bundle and delays the impulse so that the atria finish contracting before the ventricles contract. What is the role of the AV (Atrioventricular) Bundle (of His)?; It conducts impulses rapidly between the SA node and the bundle branches. What is the function of the Left and Right Bundle Branches?; They split off from the AV bundle and conduct impulses to the Purkinje fibers on both sides of the heart. What do Purkinje Fibers do?; They are large fibers that conduct impulses to the ventricular myocardium. What are the major components of the cardiac conduction system?; SA node, AV node, bundle of His, right and left bundle branches, and Purkinje fibers. What is the function of the Purkinje fibers in the cardiac conduction system?; They stimulate muscle cells in the ventricles, causing them to contract with a twisting motion. What motion do ventricles perform when stimulated by Purkinje fibers?; They contract with a twisting motion. Where are the whorled networks of muscle located in the heart?; In the walls of the ventricles. What is an Electrocardiogram (ECG, EKG)?; A recording of electrical changes that occur in the myocardium during the cardiac cycle. What is the primary use of an ECG?; To assess the heart’s ability to conduct impulses. What does the P wave in an ECG represent?; Atrial depolarization; occurs just prior to atrial contraction. What does the QRS complex in an ECG represent?; Ventricular depolarization; occurs just prior to ventricular contraction. What does the T wave in an ECG represent?; Ventricular repolarization; occurs just prior to ventricular relaxation. Why is the record of atrial repolarization not seen in an ECG?; It is 'hidden' in the large QRS complex, since ventricular depolarization is a much larger event. What does Figure 15.19 illustrate?; The cardiac cycle and corresponding ECG readings. What does the first panel (a) in Figure 15.19 represent?; The atrial depolarization phase, shown by the P wave on the ECG. What is shown in the second panel (b) of Figure 15.19?; The atrial contraction and the beginning of ventricular depolarization. What does the third panel (c) in Figure 15.19 depict?; The spread of ventricular depolarization, represented by the QRS complex on the ECG. What is represented by the fourth panel (d) in Figure 15.19?; The completion of ventricular depolarization and beginning of ventricular contraction. What does the fifth panel (e) in Figure 15.19 show?; The ventricular repolarization phase, indicated by the T wave on the ECG. What phase is illustrated in the sixth panel (f) of Figure 15.19?; The completion of ventricular repolarization and relaxation phase. What is the significance of the QRS complex in an ECG?; It represents the depolarization of the ventricles. What does the P wave on an ECG indicate?; The depolarization of the atria. What does the T wave on an ECG represent?; The repolarization of the ventricles. What does the graph labeled 'Pressure changes' in Figure 15.20 show?; It shows the pressure changes in the aorta, ventricle, and atrium during the cardiac cycle. What does the 'Ventricular volume' graph in Figure 15.20 indicate?; It indicates the changes in ventricular volume during the cardiac cycle. What is shown in the 'Electrocardiogram (ECG)' graph in Figure 15.20?; It shows the electrical activity of the heart during the cardiac cycle. What information does the 'Heart sounds' graph in Figure 15.20 provide?; It provides information about the sounds produced by the heart valves during the cardiac cycle. What event is indicated by the opening and closing of the AV valve in Figure 15.20?; The opening and closing of the AV valve indicate the phases of ventricular systole and diastole. During what phase of the cardiac cycle does the aortic valve open, according to Figure 15.20?; The aortic valve opens during ventricular systole. What does the 'Atrial systole' phase indicate in Figure 15.20?; Atrial systole indicates the contraction of the atria, pushing blood into the ventricles. What is the significance of the 'Ventricular systole' phase in Figure 15.20?; Ventricular systole is the phase where the ventricles contract, pumping blood into the aorta and pulmonary artery. What does the 'Ventricular diastole' phase represent in Figure 15.20?; Ventricular diastole represents the relaxation of the ventricles, allowing them to fill with blood. According to Figure 15.20, what happens to ventricular volume during ventricular systole?; Ventricular volume decreases as blood is ejected from the ventricles. What does the P wave represent in the ECG graph in Figure 15.20?; The P wave represents atrial depolarization. What does the QRS complex represent in the ECG graph in Figure 15.20?; The QRS complex represents ventricular depolarization. What does the T wave represent in the ECG graph in Figure 15.20?; The T wave represents ventricular repolarization. What normally controls the heart rate?; The SA node. Which fibers modify the heart rate in response to changing conditions?; Sympathetic and parasympathetic fibers. What are some conditions that can modify the heart rate?; Physical exercise, body temperature, fight-or-flight response, and concentration of ions like K+ and Ca2+. How do parasympathetic impulses affect the heart rate?; Parasympathetic impulses via vagus nerves decrease heart rate by influencing the SA and AV nodes. How do sympathetic impulses affect the heart rate?; Sympathetic impulses via accelerator nerves increase heart rate by influencing the SA and AV nodes, and ventricular myocardium. Where do baroreceptor reflexes arise from?; Baroreceptor reflexes arise from the cardiac control center in the medulla oblongata. What is the function of baroreceptor reflexes?; To balance inhibitory and excitatory effects of parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers. What does the cardiac control center regulate?; The cardiac control center regulates autonomic impulses to the heart. What is the general function of the baroreceptor reflex?; To maintain stable blood pressure by altering heart action through autonomic impulses. What are the main components of the general reflex arc in the baroreceptor reflex?; Receptor, sensory or afferent neuron, central nervous system, motor or efferent neuron, and effector (muscle or gland). Where are baroreceptors located in the cardiovascular system?; In the carotid sinuses and the aortic arch. What role does the central nervous system play in the baroreceptor reflex?; It processes the sensory input from baroreceptors and sends motor impulses to effectors to alter heart action. How do autonomic impulses affect heart action in the baroreceptor reflex?; They can increase or decrease heart rate and strength of contraction to regulate blood pressure. Which part of the brain is involved in the baroreceptor reflex?; The medulla oblongata, which contains the cardiac control center. What type of neurons carry signals from baroreceptors to the central nervous system?; Sensory or afferent neurons. What type of neurons carry signals from the central nervous system to the effectors in the baroreceptor reflex?; Motor or efferent neurons. What is the role of the effector in the baroreceptor reflex?; To carry out the response to maintain or restore stable blood pressure, such as altering the heart rate or strength of contraction. What happens when baroreceptors detect a decrease in blood pressure?; They send fewer signals to the central nervous system, which then increases sympathetic activity to raise heart rate and blood pressure. What are arrhythmias?; Altered heart rhythms. What is fibrillation?; Uncoordinated, chaotic contraction of small areas of myocardium. Is atrial fibrillation life-threatening?; No, atrial fibrillation is not life-threatening. Is ventricular fibrillation life-threatening?; Yes, ventricular fibrillation is often fatal. What is tachycardia?; Abnormally fast heartbeat, >100 beats/min at rest. What is bradycardia?; Abnormally slow heartbeat, < 60 beats/min at rest. What is flutter?; Rapid, regular contraction of a heart chamber, 250-350 beats/min. What is a premature beat?; A beat that occurs before expected in normal cardiac cycle; often originates from ectopic regions of heart (other than SA node). What is an ectopic pacemaker?; Damage to SA node may lead to AV node taking over and acting as a secondary pacemaker; 40-60 beats/min instead of 70-80. What is an artificial pacemaker?; A device used to treat disorders of the cardiac conduction system; implantable and battery-powered. What are blood vessels?; Organs of the cardiovascular system. What is the function of blood vessels in the cardiovascular system?; They form a closed circuit, transporting blood from the heart to body cells (or lungs) and back to the heart. What is the role of arteries?; To carry blood away from the ventricles of the heart. What is the function of arterioles?; To receive blood from the arteries and carry it to the capillaries. What occurs at the capillaries?; Exchange of substances between the blood and the body cells. What is the role of venules?; To receive blood from the capillaries and conduct it to veins. What is the function of veins?; To receive blood from venules and carry it back to the atria of the heart. What is the primary function of arteries?; To carry blood away from the heart. What is the primary function of veins?; To carry blood towards the heart. What are the three layers of the blood vessel wall?; Tunica intima, tunica media, and tunica externa. What is the function of the tunica intima?; It provides a smooth lining for the lumen of the blood vessel. What is the function of the tunica media?; It controls the diameter of the blood vessel through smooth muscle contraction. What is the function of the tunica externa?; It provides structural support and protection for the blood vessel. What is the role of valves in veins?; To prevent the backflow of blood. What type of blood vessel is shown at the bottom of the histological image?; Arteriole. What type of blood vessel is shown at the top of the histological image?; Venule. What is the lumen in a blood vessel?; The central cavity through which blood flows. What is angiogenesis?; Formation of new blood vessels. Which factor mainly controls angiogenesis?; Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF). Why is angiogenesis regulated in the body?; Because excess, deficient, or inappropriate blood vessel formation can cause common diseases. What does the body secrete in response to a blocked coronary artery?; Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF). How can VEGF be delivered if the body's secretion is insufficient?; VEGF may be delivered in time-release capsules. Why do tumors secrete VEGF?; To nourish themselves. What are antiangiogenesis drugs used to treat?; Cancer and age-related macular degeneration. What are the three layers or tunics of an artery?; Tunica interna (intima), Tunica media, Tunica externa (adventitia). What is the innermost layer of an artery called?; Tunica interna (intima). What type of tissue is found in the Tunica media of an artery?; Smooth muscle and elastic tissue. What is the outer layer of an artery called?; Tunica externa (adventitia). How does the wall thickness of arteries compare to that of veins?; Arteries have thicker walls than veins. Under what condition do arteries transport blood?; Under high blood pressure. What do arteries give rise to?; Smaller arterioles. What are the main structural differences between arterioles and arteries?; Arterioles have thinner walls than arteries, but both have the same three layers or tunics. How do the walls of arterioles change as they become smaller?; The walls of the middle and outer layers become thinner as arterioles become smaller. What functions can both arteries and arterioles perform?; Both arteries and arterioles can undergo vasoconstriction and vasodilation. What do small arterioles contain in their walls?; A few muscle fibers. What type of cells are found in the walls of arterioles?; Smooth muscle cells. What is the function of the precapillary sphincter?; To regulate blood flow into capillaries. What is the inner lining of arterioles called?; Endothelium. What structure connects arterioles to capillaries?; Precapillary sphincter. What are capillaries?; Capillaries are the smallest-diameter blood vessels. What do capillaries connect?; Capillaries connect the smallest arterioles and the smallest venules. What are capillaries extensions of?; Capillaries are extensions of the inner lining of arterioles. What do the walls of capillaries consist of?; The walls of capillaries consist of endothelium (simple squamous epithelium) only. Are capillaries permeable?; Capillaries are semi-permeable. What mainly regulates capillary blood flow?; Capillary blood flow is regulated mainly by precapillary sphincters. What are precapillary sphincters?; Precapillary sphincters are smooth muscle surrounding capillary when it branches off arteriole or metarteriole. How are substances exchanged in capillaries?; By diffusion. What are the openings in the walls of capillaries called?; Thin slits where endothelial cells overlap. How does the size of openings in capillaries vary?; The size of openings varies among tissues. What determines the permeability of capillaries?; The size of the slits in the capillary walls. How does the metabolic rate of a tissue affect its capillary network density?; Higher the metabolic rate in a tissue, the denser its capillary networks. Why do muscle and nerve tissues have a rich capillary supply?; Because they use a large amount of O2 and nutrients. Which types of tissues have fewer capillaries?; Tissues with lower metabolic rate, such as cartilage. What is the primary function of capillaries?; To exchange gases, nutrients, and metabolic byproducts between blood and tissue around cells. What is the most important method of transfer in capillary exchange?; Diffusion. How do lipid-soluble substances diffuse in capillaries?; Through the cell membrane. How do water-soluble substances diffuse in capillaries?; Through membrane channels and slits. What forces molecules through the membrane during filtration in capillaries?; Hydrostatic pressure. Where does the pressure for filtration in capillaries come from?; From ventricular contraction. What creates osmotic pressure in capillaries?; The presence of impermeant solute, such as plasma proteins, inside capillaries. What role does osmotic pressure play in capillary exchange?; It draws water into capillaries, opposing filtration. What happens at the arteriolar end of a capillary during capillary exchange?; H2O and other substances leave the capillary because hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure. Why do H2O and other substances leave the capillary at the arteriolar end?; Because hydrostatic pressure is greater than osmotic pressure. What happens at the venular end of a capillary during capillary exchange?; H2O enters the capillary because osmotic pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure. Why does H2O enter the capillary at the venular end?; Because osmotic pressure is greater than hydrostatic pressure. What is the net outward force of hydrostatic pressure at the arteriolar end of a capillary?; 35 mm Hg What is the inward force of osmotic pressure at the arteriolar end of a capillary?; 24 mm Hg What is the net outward pressure at the arteriolar end of a capillary?; 11 mm Hg What is the net outward force of hydrostatic pressure at the venular end of a capillary?; 16 mm Hg What is the inward force of osmotic pressure at the venular end of a capillary?; 24 mm Hg What is the net inward pressure at the venular end of a capillary?; 8 mm Hg What are venules?; Microscopic vessels that transport blood from the capillaries to veins. How do the walls of venules compare to those of arterioles?; Venules have thinner walls and less smooth muscle than arterioles. How do the walls of veins compare to the walls of arteries?; Veins have thinner walls than arteries. How many layers or tunics do veins have?; Three layers or tunics. Which layer of veins is less developed compared to arteries?; The tunica media. Under what kind of pressure do veins carry blood?; Relatively low pressure. What function do veins serve besides carrying blood?; They function as blood reservoirs. What special feature do many veins have to prevent backflow?; Flap-like valves. What percentage of blood is found in systemic veins at any time?; 60-70% What percentage of blood is found in the lungs at any time?; 10-12% What percentage of blood is found in the heart at any time?; 8-11% What percentage of blood is found in systemic arteries at any time?; 10-12% What percentage of blood is found in capillaries at any time?; 4-5% Where is about two-thirds of the blood located at any time?; In veins and venules What are the three layers of an artery wall?; An endothelial lining, a middle layer of smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue, and an outer layer of connective tissue. What is the function of an artery?; Carries blood under relatively high pressure from the heart to arterioles. How does the wall of an arteriole compare to that of an artery?; An arteriole has a thinner wall with three layers; smaller arterioles have an endothelial lining, some smooth muscle tissue, and a small amount of connective tissue. What is the function of an arteriole?; Connects an artery to a capillary, helps control the blood flow into a capillary by vasoconstricting or vasodilating. What is the structure of a capillary wall?; A single layer of squamous epithelium. What is the function of a capillary?; Allows nutrients, gases, and wastes to be exchanged between the blood and tissue fluid. How does the wall of a venule compare to that of an arteriole?; A venule has a thinner wall with less smooth muscle and elastic connective tissue. What is the function of a venule?; Connects a capillary to a vein. How does the wall of a vein compare to that of an artery?; A vein has a thinner wall with similar layers; the middle layer is more poorly developed; some veins have flap-like valves. What is the function of a vein?; Carries blood under relatively low pressure from a venule to the heart; valves prevent backflow of blood; serves as a blood reservoir. What is atherosclerosis?; Deposits of cholesterol plaque form in inner lining of walls of arteries. What is an aneurysm?; A bulge in the wall of an artery, formed when blood pressure dilates a weakened area of the vessel; can burst wall of artery. What is phlebitis?; Inflammation of a vein; common disorder. What are varicose veins?; Abnormal and irregular dilations in superficial veins; most common in legs. What is blood pressure?; The force the blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessels. What role does blood pressure play in the circulatory system?; Blood pressure circulates the blood. To what does the term 'blood pressure' most commonly refer?; Pressure in systemic arteries. Is there blood pressure throughout the vascular system?; Yes, there is blood pressure throughout the vascular system. In which direction does blood move throughout the system?; Blood moves from higher to lower pressure throughout the system. What happens to arterial blood pressure when the ventricles contract?; It rises. What happens to arterial blood pressure when the ventricles relax?; It falls. What is systolic pressure (SP)?; The maximum pressure reached during ventricular contraction. What is diastolic pressure (DP)?; The minimum pressure remaining before the next ventricular contraction. What is pulse pressure (PP)?; The difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressures (SP - DP). What is mean arterial pressure (MAP)?; The average pressure in the arterial system; represents the average force driving blood to the tissues. How is blood pressure typically stated?; As a fraction, such as SP/DP (e.g., 120/80). In what units is blood pressure measured?; mm Hg (millimeters of mercury). How is mean arterial pressure (MAP) calculated?; MAP = DP + 1/3 PP. What instrument is typically used to measure arterial blood pressure?; A sphygmomanometer. What are the main components of a sphygmomanometer?; Air control valve, bulb, pressure gauge, and inflatable cuff. What does the pressure gauge on a sphygmomanometer measure?; Arterial blood pressure. What part of the sphygmomanometer is inflated to measure blood pressure?; The inflatable cuff. How is the air released from the inflatable cuff of a sphygmomanometer?; Using the air control valve. What happens to blood pressure as the distance from the left ventricle increases?; Blood pressure decreases. Which part of the cardiovascular system has the highest blood pressure?; The aorta. Which part of the cardiovascular system has the lowest blood pressure?; The vena cava. What are the two types of blood pressure shown in the graph?; Systolic pressure and diastolic pressure. At which point in the cardiovascular system does the most significant drop in blood pressure occur?; In the arterioles. What is the approximate systolic blood pressure in the large arteries?; Around 120 mm Hg. What is the approximate diastolic blood pressure in the large arteries?; Around 80 mm Hg. How does blood pressure change as blood moves through the capillaries?; Blood pressure continues to decrease. How is the blood pressure in the veins compared to the arteries?; Blood pressure in the veins is much lower than in the arteries. Where is the temporal artery pulse most easily detected?; On the side of the forehead. Where is the carotid artery pulse most easily detected?; On the neck. Where is the brachial artery pulse most easily detected?; On the inner side of the upper arm. Where is the radial artery pulse most easily detected?; On the wrist. Where is the femoral artery pulse most easily detected?; In the groin area. Where is the popliteal artery pulse most easily detected?; Behind the knee. Where is the posterior tibial artery pulse most easily detected?; On the inner side of the ankle. Where is the dorsalis pedis artery pulse most easily detected?; On the top of the foot. Where is the facial artery pulse most easily detected?; On the lower jaw. What happens to arterial blood pressure when blood volume increases?; Arterial blood pressure increases. How does an increase in heart rate affect arterial blood pressure?; It increases arterial blood pressure. What is the effect of increased stroke volume on arterial blood pressure?; It increases arterial blood pressure. What happens to arterial blood pressure when blood viscosity increases?; Arterial blood pressure increases. How does an increase in peripheral resistance affect arterial blood pressure?; It increases arterial blood pressure. What is stroke volume (SV)?; The volume of blood that enters the arteries with each ventricular contraction, approximately 70 mL/beat. What is cardiac output (CO)?; The volume of blood discharged from a ventricle each minute. How is cardiac output (CO) calculated?; CO = Stroke Volume (SV) × Heart Rate (HR). What is the formula to calculate cardiac output if SV is 70 mL/beat and HR is 72 beats/min?; CO = 70 mL/beat × 72 beats/min = 5,040 mL/min. How does blood pressure vary?; Blood pressure varies with cardiac output. What happens when there is an increase in stroke volume (SV) or heart rate (HR)?; An increase in SV or HR causes an increase in cardiac output (CO), which increases blood pressure (BP). What constitutes blood volume?; The sum of volumes of plasma and formed elements. What factors influence blood volume?; Age, body size, and gender. What is the average blood volume for adults?; About 5 liters (4 to 5 liters in females and 5 to 6 liters in males). What percentage of body weight does blood volume constitute?; 8% of body weight. How is blood pressure (BP) related to blood volume?; Blood pressure is directly proportional to blood volume. What can change blood pressure?; Any factor that changes blood volume. What happens to blood pressure when blood volume decreases due to hemorrhage?; Blood pressure decreases. What is peripheral resistance (PR)?; The force of friction between blood and the walls of blood vessels. What must blood pressure overcome in order to flow?; Blood pressure must overcome peripheral resistance (PR). How do factors that change peripheral resistance (PR) affect blood pressure?; Factors that change PR also change blood pressure. What effect does vasoconstriction of arterioles have on peripheral resistance (PR) and blood pressure?; Vasoconstriction of arterioles increases PR, which increases blood pressure. What happens to arteries when blood is pumped out of the ventricles?; Arteries swell and rapid elastic recoil sends the blood through the arteries, against PR in arterioles and capillaries. What is viscosity?; The difficulty with which molecules of fluid flow past each other. How does viscosity affect blood flow?; Greater viscosity leads to greater resistance to blood flow. What increases the viscosity of blood?; Blood cells and plasma proteins. What is the relationship between resistance to flow and blood pressure?; Greater resistance to flow requires greater force to transport blood, which increases blood pressure. How do factors that alter the concentration of blood cells or plasma proteins affect blood viscosity?; Any factor that alters the concentration of blood cells or plasma proteins also alters blood viscosity. How does anemia affect blood viscosity and blood pressure?; Anemia lowers the concentration of blood cells, which lowers blood viscosity and in turn lowers blood pressure. What determines blood pressure (BP)?; Blood pressure is determined by cardiac output (CO) and peripheral resistance (PR). What is the formula to calculate blood pressure?; BP = CO × PR What are the two factors that need to be regulated to maintain blood pressure?; Cardiac output (CO) and peripheral resistance (PR) What happens when cardiac output increases?; Blood pressure increases. What stimulates baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses?; An increase in blood pressure. What do baroreceptors in the aortic arch and carotid sinuses do when stimulated?; They send sensory impulses to the cardiac center. What is the response of the cardiac center to increased sensory impulses from baroreceptors?; It sends parasympathetic impulses to the heart. What effect do parasympathetic impulses have on the heart?; They inhibit the SA node. What is the result of SA node inhibition?; Heart rate decreases. What happens to blood pressure when heart rate decreases?; Blood pressure returns toward normal. What initiates the process shown in Figure 15.37?; Rising blood pressure. What is the role of the vasomotor center in response to increased blood pressure?; It is inhibited by sensory impulses. What happens to sympathetic impulses to arteriole walls when the vasomotor center is inhibited?; They become less frequent. What is the result of less frequent sympathetic impulses to arteriole walls?; Vasodilation of arterioles. What effect does vasodilation of arterioles have on peripheral resistance?; It decreases peripheral resistance. What happens to blood pressure when peripheral resistance decreases?; Blood pressure returns toward normal. What is hypertension?; Long-lasting elevated arterial blood pressure. What are some causes of hypertension?; Unknown cause, increased Na+ intake, psychological stress, obesity, kidney disease. Why is hypertension known as the 'silent killer'?; Because it may not cause any direct symptoms. How does hypertension contribute to cardiovascular diseases?; It contributes to the formation of atherosclerosis. What serious conditions can hypertension lead to?; Coronary thrombosis, embolism, cerebral thrombosis, embolism, hemorrhage, transient ischemic attack (TIA), cerebral vascular accident (CVA, stroke). What are some preventive measures for hypertension?; Healthy diet and weight, regular exercise, limiting Na+ intake. What are some treatments for hypertension?; Diuretics, sympathetic inhibitors. What happens to blood pressure as it moves through the arterial system into the capillary network?; Blood pressure decreases. Why is there little pressure remaining at the venous ends of the capillaries?; Because blood pressure decreases as blood moves through the arterial system and into the capillary network. Is venous blood flow solely a direct result of heart action?; No, it is only partly a direct result of heart action. What three factors is venous blood flow dependent on?; Skeletal muscle contraction, breathing movements, and vasoconstriction of veins. How does skeletal muscle contraction affect venous blood flow?; It helps propel blood through the veins. How do breathing movements contribute to venous blood flow?; Breathing movements create pressure changes that help move blood toward the heart. What is the role of vasoconstriction of veins in venous blood flow?; Vasoconstriction of veins helps increase the pressure within veins, aiding blood flow back to the heart. Which veins drain into the right atrium?; All veins except those returning from the lungs. What is the pressure in the right atrium called?; Central venous pressure. What factors alter the flow of blood into the right atrium?; Factors that influence central venous pressure. What does central venous pressure affect?; Pressure within the peripheral veins. What effect does a weakly beating heart have on central venous pressure?; It increases central venous pressure. What happens when central venous pressure increases?; Blood backs up into the peripheral veins. What can an increase in central venous pressure lead to?; Peripheral edema. What increases blood flow to the right atrium, thereby increasing central venous pressure?; Increase in blood volume or venoconstriction. What must exercise be to benefit the cardiovascular system?; A regular part of life. How does the cardiovascular system adapt to aerobic exercise?; Increased pumping efficiency, blood volume, hemoglobin concentration, number of mitochondria. By how much can the heart enlarge due to regular aerobic exercise?; 40% or more. What happens to stroke volume as a result of regular aerobic exercise?; Stroke volume increases. What happens to heart rate and blood pressure as a result of regular aerobic exercise?; Heart rate and blood pressure decrease. To benefit the cardiovascular system, to what percentage of the maximum must the heart rate increase during exercise?; 70 to 85% of maximum (220 - your age). How long must each exercise session last to benefit the cardiovascular system?; 30 to 60 minutes. How often must exercise be performed each week to benefit the cardiovascular system?; At least 3 to 4 times per week. What are the two pathways formed by blood vessels?; The pulmonary circuit and the systemic circuit. What is the function of the pulmonary circuit?; To carry blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. What is the function of the systemic circuit?; To carry blood from the heart to the rest of the body and back to the heart. Which side of the heart pumps blood into the pulmonary circuit?; The right side of the heart. Which side of the heart pumps blood into the systemic circuit?; The left side of the heart. What is the path of blood flow in the pulmonary circuit starting from the right ventricle?; Right ventricle → pulmonary trunk → right and left pulmonary arteries → lobar branches, repeated divisions → pulmonary arterioles → pulmonary capillaries → pulmonary venules and veins → left atrium. What is the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of blood in the pulmonary arteries and arterioles?; Blood in pulmonary arteries and arterioles is low in O2 and high in CO2. Where does gas exchange occur in the pulmonary circuit?; Gas exchange occurs in pulmonary (alveolar) capillaries. What is the oxygen and carbon dioxide content of blood in the pulmonary venules and veins?; Blood in pulmonary venules and veins is rich in O2 and low in CO2. Where does oxygen-rich blood move from and to in the systemic circuit?; Oxygen-rich blood moves from the left atrium to the left ventricle. What happens when the left ventricle contracts in the systemic circuit?; Contraction of the left ventricle sends blood into the systemic circuit. What is the path of blood flow in the systemic circuit starting from the left ventricle?; Left ventricle → aorta → all arteries and arterioles leading to body tissues → systemic capillaries → systemic venules and veins → right atrium. What is the primary function of the alveolar wall in relation to osmosis?; To facilitate the movement of water out of the alveoli due to high osmotic pressure in the interstitial fluid. What creates the high osmotic pressure in the interstitial fluid around the alveoli?; Solutes that fail to enter the alveoli contribute to the osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid. What role do pulmonary capillaries play in the movement of fluid in alveoli?; Pulmonary capillaries have a slight net outflow of fluid, contributing to the osmotic pressure in the interstitial fluid. How does fluid from the interstitial space enter the lymphatic capillary or alveolar (blood) capillary?; Due to the high osmotic pressure in the interstitial fluid, fluid is drawn into the lymphatic capillary or alveolar (blood) capillary. What happens to any excess water in the alveoli?; It is drawn out by the higher osmotic pressure of the interstitial fluid. What is the largest artery in the body?; The aorta. What does the aorta supply blood to?; All of the systemic arteries. What organs are supplied by the right and left coronary arteries?; The heart. Which portion of the aorta gives rise to the celiac artery?; Abdominal aorta. What regions are supplied by the brachiocephalic trunk?; Right upper limb and right side of the head. Which artery supplies the diaphragm?; Phrenic artery. Which artery supplies the left side of the head?; Left common carotid artery. What regions are supplied by the left subclavian artery?; Left upper limb. Which portion of the aorta gives rise to the superior mesenteric artery?; Abdominal aorta. What organs are supplied by the superior mesenteric artery?; Portions of small and large intestines. Which artery supplies the adrenal gland?; Suprarenal artery. What organ is supplied by the renal artery?; Kidney. Which portion of the aorta gives rise to the bronchial artery?; Thoracic aorta. What organs are supplied by the bronchial artery?; Bronchi. Which artery supplies the pericardium?; Pericardial artery. What organ is supplied by the esophageal artery?; Esophagus. Which artery supplies the mediastinum?; Mediastinal artery. What regions are supplied by the posterior intercostal artery?; Thoracic wall. Which portion of the aorta gives rise to the inferior mesenteric artery?; Abdominal aorta. What regions are supplied by the inferior mesenteric artery?; Lower portions of large intestine. Which artery supplies the posterior abdominal wall?; Lumbar artery. What regions are supplied by the middle sacral artery?; Sacrum and coccyx. Which artery supplies the ovary or testis?; Gonadal artery. What regions are supplied by the common iliac artery?; Lower abdominal wall, pelvic organs, and lower limb. What major vessels are associated with the heart?; Right common carotid artery, right internal jugular vein, right subclavian artery, brachiocephalic trunk, right subclavian vein, brachiocephalic vein, superior vena cava, right pulmonary artery, right pulmonary veins, right auricle, pulmonary trunk, left common carotid artery, left internal jugular vein, left subclavian artery, left subclavian vein, aortic arch, ligamentum arteriosum, left pulmonary artery, left pulmonary veins, left auricle. Which vessel is labeled as the 'right common carotid a.' in the diagram?; Right common carotid artery. Which vessel is labeled as the 'right internal jugular v.' in the diagram?; Right internal jugular vein. Which vessel is labeled as the 'right subclavian a.' in the diagram?; Right subclavian artery. Which vessel is labeled as the 'brachiocephalic trunk' in the diagram?; Brachiocephalic trunk. Which vessel is labeled as the 'right subclavian v.' in the diagram?; Right subclavian vein. Which vessel is labeled as the 'brachiocephalic v.' in the diagram?; Brachiocephalic vein. Which vessel is labeled as the 'superior vena cava' in the diagram?; Superior vena cava. Which vessel is labeled as the 'right pulmonary a.' in the diagram?; Right pulmonary artery. Which vessel is labeled as the 'right pulmonary vv.' in the diagram?; Right pulmonary veins. Which vessel is labeled as the 'right auricle' in the diagram?; Right auricle. Which vessel is labeled as the 'pulmonary trunk' in the diagram?; Pulmonary trunk. Which vessel is labeled as the 'left common carotid a.' in the diagram?; Left common carotid artery. Which vessel is labeled as the 'left internal jugular v.' in the diagram?; Left internal jugular vein. Which vessel is labeled as the 'left subclavian a.' in the diagram?; Left subclavian artery. Which vessel is labeled as the 'left subclavian v.' in the diagram?; Left subclavian vein. Which vessel is labeled as the 'aortic arch' in the diagram?; Aortic arch. Which vessel is labeled as the 'ligamentum arteriosum' in the diagram?; Ligamentum arteriosum. Which vessel is labeled as the 'left pulmonary a.' in the diagram?; Left pulmonary artery. Which vessel is labeled as the 'left pulmonary vv.' in the diagram?; Left pulmonary veins. Which vessel is labeled as the 'left auricle' in the diagram?; Left auricle. What is the primary artery shown in Figure 15.42?; Abdominal aorta Which artery branches off from the abdominal aorta and supplies the spleen?; Splenic artery Which artery branches off from the abdominal aorta to supply the liver?; Hepatic artery What are the major branches of the abdominal aorta shown in the figure?; Splenic artery, Celiac artery, Hepatic artery, Renal artery, Intestinal branches from superior mesenteric artery, Branches from inferior mesenteric artery, Common iliac arteries Which artery supplies blood to the kidneys?; Renal artery What are the intestinal branches that come from the superior mesenteric artery?; Intestinal branches from superior mesenteric artery supply blood to the intestines. Which arteries branch off from the inferior mesenteric artery?; Branches from the inferior mesenteric artery supply blood to the lower part of the intestines. Which arteries are the final branches of the abdominal aorta before it bifurcates?; Common iliac arteries What arteries supply blood to the brain, head, and neck?; Branches of the subclavian and common carotid arteries. Which artery is located below the clavicle?; Subclavian artery. What is the name of the artery that branches from the common carotid artery?; Internal carotid artery. Which artery supplies blood to the facial region?; Facial artery. What artery is responsible for supplying blood to the temporal region of the head?; Superficial temporal artery. Which artery supplies blood to the thyroid gland?; Superior thyroid artery. What is the name of the artery that supplies blood to the occipital region?; Occipital artery. Which artery is located near the vertebral column and supplies blood to the brain?; Vertebral artery. Which artery supplies blood to the maxillary region?; Maxillary artery. What is the cerebral arterial circle also known as?; The circle of Willis. Which artery systems does the circle of Willis join?; The carotid and vertebral artery systems. What is the primary function of the arteries that form the circle of Willis?; To supply blood to the brain. What is the significance of the arrangement of the circle of Willis?; It provides alternate pathways for blood to reach the brain. From where do the cerebral arteries emerge to supply blood to brain tissues?; From the circle of Willis. What artery gives off branches in the neck and continues into the arm?; The subclavian artery. What is the name of the artery that continues from the subclavian artery into the arm?; Axillary artery. Which artery branches off into the posterior humeral circumflex artery?; The axillary artery. What is the name of the artery that branches off into the anterior humeral circumflex artery?; The axillary artery. Which artery is located deep in the brachial region?; Deep brachial artery. What artery is found along the radial side of the forearm?; Radial artery. What artery is found along the ulnar side of the forearm?; Ulnar artery. Which artery supplies blood to the thumb?; Principal artery of the thumb. Which artery is responsible for supplying blood to the deep palmar region?; Deep palmar arch. What is the name of the artery that supplies blood to the superficial palmar region?; Superficial palmar arch. Which artery supplies blood to the fingers?; Digital arteries. Which arteries supply blood to the thoracic wall?; Blood reaches the thoracic wall via branches of the subclavian artery and the thoracic aorta. What are the main vessels that branch to supply the thoracic wall?; The subclavian artery and the thoracic aorta. What is the role of the subclavian artery in the thoracic wall?; The subclavian artery branches to supply blood to the thoracic wall. How does the thoracic aorta contribute to blood supply in the thoracic wall?; The thoracic aorta branches to supply blood to the thoracic wall. Into what does the abdominal aorta divide?; The common iliac arteries. What regions do the common iliac arteries supply blood to?; The pelvic organs, gluteal region, and lower limbs. What are the two branches of the common iliac artery?; The internal iliac artery and external iliac artery. What areas does the internal iliac artery supply blood to?; The pelvic and gluteal areas. What arteries provide the major blood supply to the lower limbs?; The external iliac arteries. Where are the external iliac arteries located?; They are located in the lower abdomen and pelvis, extending into the lower limbs. What is the function of the external iliac arteries?; They provide the major blood supply to the lower limbs. What is the significance of the external iliac arteries in the circulatory system?; They are crucial for supplying oxygenated blood to the lower limbs. Which artery branches off into the external iliac arteries?; The common iliac artery. What are some of the branches of the external iliac arteries?; Branches include the femoral artery, deep femoral artery, and others that supply the lower limbs. What is the main vein that carries deoxygenated blood from the upper body to the heart?; Superior vena cava. Which vein is responsible for carrying deoxygenated blood from the lower body to the heart?; Inferior vena cava. What is the name of the vein that drains blood from the head and neck?; Internal jugular vein. Which veins are responsible for draining blood from the arms?; Cephalic, basilic, and brachial veins. What is the function of the femoral vein?; It carries deoxygenated blood from the thigh to the inferior vena cava. Which vein is found in the lower leg and foot?; Small saphenous vein. Which vein runs along the inner side of the leg and is the longest vein in the body?; Great saphenous vein. What is the role of the hepatic veins?; They drain deoxygenated blood from the liver to the inferior vena cava. Which vein collects blood from the kidneys?; Renal vein. What is the function of the subclavian vein?; It drains blood from the upper extremities and returns it to the heart. What does systemic venous circulation return to the heart?; Blood after exchange of gases, nutrients, and wastes between blood and cells. How do vessels of the venous system originate?; From the merging of capillaries into venules, venules into small veins, and small veins into larger ones. Why are venous pathways difficult to follow compared to arterial pathways?; Due to irregular networks and unnamed tributaries. What do pathways of larger veins usually parallel?; Arteries of the same name. Into what do all systemic veins converge?; Superior and inferior venae cavae. Through which part of the heart do the superior and inferior venae cavae return blood?; The right atrium. What do the external jugular veins drain blood from?; The face, scalp, and superficial neck. What do the internal jugular veins drain blood from?; The brain, and deep portions of the face and neck. What are the two systems of veins that drain the upper limb and shoulder?; Deep set of veins and superficial set of veins. What is the pathway of the deep set of veins in the upper limb?; Digital veins → radial and ulnar veins → brachial veins. What is the pathway of the superficial set of veins in the upper limb?; Anastomoses in palm and wrist → basilic and cephalic veins. Which veins do the basilic and cephalic veins join?; Basilic vein joins the brachial vein, and cephalic vein joins the axillary vein. Where do the digital veins drain into in the deep vein system?; Radial and ulnar veins. Where do the radial and ulnar veins drain into in the deep vein system?; Brachial veins. Where do the anastomoses in the palm and wrist drain into in the superficial vein system?; Basilic and cephalic veins. Which vein does the basilic vein join?; Brachial vein. Which vein does the cephalic vein join?; Axillary vein. Which veins drain the abdominal and thoracic walls?; The abdominal and thoracic walls are drained by tributaries of the brachiocephalic and azygos veins. Into which vein does the azygos vein drain directly?; The azygos vein drains directly into the superior vena cava. What are the main tributaries that drain the thoracic walls?; The brachiocephalic and azygos veins. What is the function of the azygos vein?; The azygos vein drains blood from the thoracic walls directly into the superior vena cava. What is unusual about portal veins?; They do not transport blood directly to the heart. What is the unique venous pathway that drains the abdominal viscera called?; The hepatic portal system. Which organs' capillaries drain into the hepatic portal vein?; The stomach, intestines, pancreas, and spleen. Where does the hepatic portal vein transport blood for processing?; To the liver. Where is blood delivered after being processed in the liver?; To the inferior vena cava. What is a portal system?; A portal system is a system that filters blood through 2 sets of capillaries instead of the usual 1 set. What are examples of portal systems in the body?; The Hepatic Portal System and the Renal Portal System. How many sets of capillaries are involved in a portal system?; 2 sets of capillaries. What is the unique function of the second set of capillaries in a portal system?; The second set of capillaries performs a unique function in the body, such as further filtering or processing of blood. What is the role of the Hepatic Portal System?; The Hepatic Portal System filters blood from the digestive organs through the liver before it enters the general circulation. What is the role of the Renal Portal System?; The Renal Portal System filters blood through the kidneys for waste removal and regulation of fluid balance. Into what groups do veins from the lower limb drain?; Deep and superficial groups of veins. What is the flow path of blood through the deep set of veins from the lower limb?; Veins in foot → anterior and posterior tibial veins → popliteal vein → femoral vein → external iliac vein. What is the flow path of blood through the superficial set of veins from the lower limb?; Veins in foot → small and great saphenous veins. Which vein is the longest vein in the body?; The great saphenous vein. Where do the anterior and posterior tibial veins drain into?; Popliteal vein. Where does the popliteal vein drain into?; Femoral vein. Where does the femoral vein drain into?; External iliac vein. Which veins are included in the superficial set of veins in the lower limb?; Small and great saphenous veins. What happens to cholesterol levels in blood vessels as people age?; Cholesterol deposition in the blood vessels increases. What happens to coronary arteries with aging?; Coronary arteries narrow. How can the heart change in size due to disease as people age?; The heart may shrink slightly or enlarge due to disease. What happens to the proportion of cardiac muscle in the heart with aging?; The proportion of the heart consisting of cardiac muscle declines. What type of tissue increases in the heart with aging?; Fibrous connective tissue. What happens to the amount of adipose tissue in the heart with aging?; The amount of adipose tissue in the heart increases. Which parts of the heart may thicken with aging?; Heart valves and the left ventricular wall. What happens to systolic blood pressure with aging?; Systolic blood pressure increases. What happens to the resting heart rate with aging?; Resting heart rate decreases. What changes occur in the lumens of large arteries with aging?; The lumens of large arteries narrow as arterial walls thicken. What happens to arterial elasticity with aging?; Arterial elasticity decreases. What are the two main factors that contribute to cardiovascular disease?; Environmental and hereditary factors. What is Marfan syndrome?; A connective tissue defect involving an abnormal type of the protein fibrillin, which can weaken the wall of the aorta and result in sudden death. What protein is abnormal in Marfan syndrome?; Fibrillin. What cardiovascular condition can result from Marfan syndrome?; Bursting of the aorta and sudden death. What is familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?; An inherited overgrowth of myocardium caused by an abnormal myosin chain in cardiac muscle, which can result in sudden death. What protein defect is associated with familial hypertrophic cardiomyopathy?; Abnormal myosin chain. What is the result of an inherited deficiency of a mitochondrial enzyme that breaks down fatty acids?; Heart failure due to the inability to break down long-chain fatty acids and use them for energy. What is the primary energy source for cardiac muscle?; Long-chain fatty acids. What is familial hypercholesterolemia?; A condition where abnormal LDL receptors on liver cells do not take up cholesterol from the blood, resulting in high cholesterol and coronary artery disease. What is the consequence of abnormal LDL receptors in familial hypercholesterolemia?; High cholesterol and coronary artery disease. What is Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)?; A disease involving deposition of cholesterol plaque on inner walls of coronary arteries. What does CAD lead to in the coronary arteries?; Obstruction of coronary arteries and O2 deficiency in cardiac muscle. What conditions often accompany CAD?; High serum cholesterol and hypertension. What is the term for chest pain caused by CAD upon exertion?; Angina pectoris. What major health event is CAD a contributing factor to?; Myocardial infarction (heart attack). What are the treatments for CAD?; Percutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty (PTCA) and coronary bypass surgery. Where is the aortic valve best heard?; In the second intercostal space right of the sternum. Where is the pulmonary valve best heard?; In the second intercostal space left of the sternum. Where is the tricuspid valve best heard?; At the fifth intercostal space left of the sternum. Where is the mitral valve best heard?; In the fifth intercostal space on the left at the nipple line. Where can the pulse be taken for the temporal artery?; Anterior to the ear. Where can the pulse be taken for the carotid artery?; Inferior medial portion of the neck. Where can the pulse be taken for the brachial artery?; Distal brachial region on the anterior side. Where can the pulse be taken for the radial artery?; Lateral side of the wrist on the anterior side. Where can the pulse be taken for the femoral artery?; Inguinal region. Where can the pulse be taken for the popliteal artery?; Popliteal region. Where can the pulse be taken for the dorsalis pedis artery?; Anterior ankle. Where can the pulse be taken for the posterior tibia artery?; Posterior ankle. What are the functions of the organs of the cardiovascular system?; The functions include transporting nutrients, oxygen, and hormones to cells throughout the body and removal of metabolic wastes (carbon dioxide, nitrogenous wastes). What are the coverings of the heart?; The coverings of the heart include the pericardium, which is a double-walled sac containing the heart and the roots of the great vessels. What are the layers that compose the wall of the heart?; The layers that compose the wall of the heart are the epicardium (outer layer), myocardium (middle muscular layer), and endocardium (inner layer). Can you identify and locate the major parts of the heart?; The major parts of the heart include the atria (upper chambers), ventricles (lower chambers), valves (tricuspid, bicuspid, aortic, and pulmonary), and major blood vessels (aorta, pulmonary arteries, and veins). What is the function of the atria in the heart?; The atria receive blood returning to the heart from the body and lungs. What is the function of the ventricles in the heart?; The ventricles pump blood out of the heart to the lungs and the rest of the body. What is the pathway of blood through the heart?; The pathway of blood through the heart includes the right atrium, right ventricle, pulmonary arteries, lungs, pulmonary veins, left atrium, left ventricle, and aorta. What is coronary circulation?; Coronary circulation refers to the movement of blood through the tissues of the heart, supplied by the coronary arteries and drained by the coronary veins. What is the cardiac cycle?; The cardiac cycle is the sequence of events in a heartbeat, including systole (contraction) and diastole (relaxation) of the atria and ventricles. How are heart sounds produced?; Heart sounds are produced by the closing of the heart valves. The 'lub' sound is caused by the closing of the AV valves, and the 'dub' sound is caused by the closing of the semilunar valves. What are the parts of a normal ECG pattern?; The parts of a normal ECG pattern include the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. What is the significance of the P wave in an ECG pattern?; The P wave represents atrial depolarization. What does the QRS complex in an ECG pattern indicate?; The QRS complex indicates ventricular depolarization. What does the T wave in an ECG pattern represent?; The T wave represents ventricular repolarization. How is the cardiac cycle controlled?; The cardiac cycle is controlled by the sinoatrial (SA) node, atrioventricular (AV) node, and the conduction pathways. What are the major types of blood vessels?; The major types of blood vessels are arteries, veins, and capillaries. How do the structures of arteries and veins differ?; Arteries have thicker walls and more elastic tissue compared to veins, which have thinner walls and valves to prevent backflow. What is the primary function of capillaries?; The primary function of capillaries is to facilitate the exchange of substances between blood and tissue fluid. How are substances exchanged between blood in capillaries and tissue fluid?; Substances are exchanged through diffusion, osmosis, and filtration across the capillary walls. How is blood pressure produced?; Blood pressure is produced by the force exerted by blood against the walls of blood vessels, primarily due to the pumping action of the heart. How is blood pressure controlled?; Blood pressure is controlled by mechanisms such as the autonomic nervous system, hormones, and the kidneys. What mechanisms aid in returning venous blood to the heart?; Mechanisms that aid in returning venous blood to the heart include the skeletal muscle pump, respiratory pump, and venous valves. What are the two circuits of the cardiovascular system?; Pulmonary and systemic circuits. What is the function of the pulmonary circuit?; The pulmonary circuit carries blood between the heart and lungs for gas exchange. What is the function of the systemic circuit?; The systemic circuit carries blood between the heart and the rest of the body. What should you be able to do regarding the major arteries and veins?; Identify and locate the major arteries and veins. What changes occur in the cardiovascular system over a lifespan?; Lifespan changes in the cardiovascular system include various structural and functional alterations.