Module 1: Introduction to Philosophy and its Methods

Why Study Philosophy?

• to learn how to think well, have reason, think independently and be able to connect the dots across multiple disciplines

• can apply ethics

• being able to identify your own values

• learn how to critically evaluate your and other’s arguments

Understanding the Importance of Values

• fundamental beliefs that guide our actions, decisions, and who we are

• shape priorities and influence behavior

• they provide a sense of purpose and meaning

• values that mean a lot to me

  • love, wealth, honesty, empathy

Evaluating Arguments

• inductive arguments make the conclusion probable

• deductive arguments aim to guarantee the conclusion

  • the premises logically entail the conclusion if an argument is deductive

  • most philosophical arguments are deductive

  • typically divided into premises and conclusions

  • modus ponens: 1. If P then Q 2. P 3. Therefore Q

• a test for validity is only if the premises are true, then the conclusion is tru

• a test for soundness is whether the test for validity is met and all the premises are true

  • Valid and sound argument: P1. All cats are mammals, P2. Spaghetti is a cat, C. Therefore, Spaghetti is a mammal.

• philosophers use a lot of examples because humans have an idea of what theyd do with their values, but another of what theyd actually in a given scenario

Understanding Philosophy by Michael Hannon & James Nguyen (AI)

• Key Thesis

  • Philosophy's primary intellectual aim is understanding, not discovering true answers to philosophical questions.

  • Many aspects of philosophical practice become intelligible when viewed through the lens of understanding.

• Puzzles About Philosophy

  • Philosophers often disagree radically on fundamental issues (e.g., free will, morality, artistic merit).

  • Philosophy has failed to settle its central questions despite millennia of inquiry.

  • Academic hiring committees and student evaluations do not prioritize the truth or falsity of philosophical views.

  • Philosophical disagreement and lack of truth-convergence challenge the idea that philosophy aims at discovering true answers.

• Features of Understanding

  • Holistic: Directed toward bodies of information, not isolated propositions.

  • Pluralistic: Multiple routes to understanding, even if incompatible.

  • Non-factive: Compatible with false beliefs contributing to understanding.

  • Related to Explanation: Understanding often involves grasping explanatory relationships.

  • Requires Ability: Includes cognitive control, inferential skills, and know-how.

  • Non-testimonial: Cannot be transmitted solely through testimony.

• The Epistemic Aim of Philosophy

  • Philosophical Progress

    • Philosophy progresses by increasing understanding, not truth-convergence.

    • Thought experiments (e.g., Descartes’s evil demon, Nozick’s experience machine) deepen understanding without providing definitive truths.

    • Philosophical tools clarify concepts, uncover complexities, and eliminate implausible views.

  • Expertise

    • Philosophical expertise involves cognitive abilities like detecting invalid inferences, evaluating theories, and understanding concepts—not necessarily knowing true answers.

  • Philosophical Testimony

    • Philosophical claims are rarely accepted based on testimony alone.

    • Understanding requires intellectual autonomy and cannot be transmitted via testimony.

  • Hiring Practices

    • Truth or falsity of a candidate’s philosophical views is irrelevant in academic hiring.

    • Philosophical diversity in departments enhances understanding by providing multiple perspectives.

  • Student Evaluation

    • Students are graded on their ability to argue and demonstrate understanding, not on the truth of their conclusions.

    • Diametrically opposed conclusions can both exhibit deep understanding.

  • Systematicity

    • Philosophers value systematic projects (e.g., David Lewis’s modal realism) for their ability to connect and explain diverse issues, even if the theories are false.

  • Disagreement

    • Philosophical disagreements often "bottom out" when interlocutors understand each other's perspectives without resolving fundamental differences.

    • This practice contributes to understanding rather than truth-convergence.

• Objections and Replies

  • Is Understanding a Consolation Prize?

    • Understanding is not secondary to truth; it is the primary aim of philosophy.

    • Philosophical practices align more with the pursuit of understanding than truth.

  • Is Philosophy Worthwhile?

    • Philosophical understanding is epistemically valuable and meaningful to those who pursue it.

    • Thought experiment: Most philosophers would prefer understanding over opaque truth.

  • Does Understanding Require Truth?

    • Non-factivist view: Understanding can involve falsehoods (e.g., scientific models, thought experiments).

    • Factivist view: Philosophical understanding can still be achieved through true dependency relations and systematic knowledge, even if specific theories are false.

• Conclusion

  • Philosophy aims at understanding, which explains its practices and counters skepticism about its value.

  • Philosophical disagreement, systematicity, and intellectual autonomy are better understood through this lens.

  • Philosophical understanding is valuable, even in the absence of truth-convergence.

• Takeaways

  • Philosophy is not about finding definitive truths but about fostering deeper understanding of complex issues.

  • Philosophical practices like disagreement, diversity, and systematicity align with the goal of understanding.

  • Understanding is epistemically valuable and central to the discipline.