Lesson 2: Method of Philosophizing

Philosophizing

  • Definition: To think or express oneself in a philosophical manner.

  • Meaning: It involves considering or discussing a topic from a philosophical point of view.

I. TRUTH VS. OPINION

  • Truth

    • Definition: Knowledge that is validated and based on facts of reality.

    • Characteristics:
      a. Based on facts
      b. Can be confirmed by other sources
      c. Independent of personal interpretation, preference, or bias

  • Opinion

    • Definition: A statement that reflects personal interpretation of facts; often shows bias.

    • Characteristics:
      a. Based on emotions
      b. Open to interpretation
      c. Cannot be confirmed
      d. Inherently biased

II. THEORIES OF TRUTH

  1. Correspondence Theory of Truth
    ➤ A statement is true if it matches reality or facts.

  2. Coherence Theory of Truth
    ➤ A statement is true if it fits within a consistent system of beliefs or ideas.

  3. Pragmatist Theory of Truth
    ➤ A statement is true if it is useful or works effectively in real-world practice.

III. METHODS OF PHILOSOPHIZING

1. PhenomenologyFocus: Consciousness

  • Founded by Edmund Husserl

  • From Greek phainomenon = "appearance"

  • Studies experiences and appearances through careful observation

2. ExistentialismFocus: Freedom

  • Emphasizes personal choice and individual freedom

  • Belief: A person creates their essence through life decisions

  • "Existence precedes essence"

3. PostmodernismFocus: Culture

  • Questions all absolute truths (skepticism & relativism)

  • Belief: Truths vary per person and culture

  • No universal truth, only multiple cultural truths

4. Analytic TraditionFocus: Language and Logic

  • Founded by Gottlob Frege in the 19th century

  • Also called linguistic philosophy

  • Focuses on meanings of words, concepts, and logical analysis

5. Logic and Critical ThinkingFocus: Reasoning

  • Logic = the science and art of correct reasoning

  • Critical thinking = distinguishing facts from opinions

  • Tools for analyzing arguments and forming valid conclusions

  • Two basic types of reasoning:

    • Inductive:

      • Based on observations to make generalizations

      • Moves from specific to general

    • Deductive:

      • Draws conclusions from a broad or general definition

      • Moves from general to specific

6. Fallacies – Focus: Common reasoning errors

  • Fallacies are errors in reasoning that lead to false conclusions

IV. COMMON FALLACIES

  1. Appeal to Pity (argumentum ad misericordiam):

    • Uses emotion/sympathy to persuade

  2. Appeal to Ignorance (argumentum ad gnorantiam):

    • Assumes something is true just because it hasn’t been proven false

  3. Equivocation:

    • Uses a word with different meanings in the same argument

  4. Composition:

    • Assumes what’s true of the part is true for the whole

  5. Division:

    • Assumes what’s true of the whole is true for its parts

  6. Against the Person (argumentum ad hominem):

    • Attacks the person rather than the argument

  7. Appeal to Force (Ad Baculum):

    • Uses threats or force to justify a conclusion

  8. Appeal to the People (Ad Populum):

    • Appeals to popularity or emotions

  9. False Cause (Post Hoc):

    • Mistakes correlation for causation

  10. Hasty Generalization:

    • Makes a broad claim with little evidence

  11. Begging the Question (Petition Principii):

    • Assumes what it should be proving

VI. BASIS OF TRUTH in Each Method

  • Phenomenology – Based on consciousness and personal experience

  • Existentialism – Based on freedom and exercising personal choice

  • Postmodernism – Truth is relative, not absolute

  • Analytic Tradition – Based on meanings of words and logical structure

  • Logic and Critical Thinking – Based on reasoning and logical analysis

  • Fallacies – Based on identifying mistakes in reasoning