Definition: To think or express oneself in a philosophical manner.
Meaning: It involves considering or discussing a topic from a philosophical point of view.
Truth
Definition: Knowledge that is validated and based on facts of reality.
Characteristics:
a. Based on facts
b. Can be confirmed by other sources
c. Independent of personal interpretation, preference, or bias
Opinion
Definition: A statement that reflects personal interpretation of facts; often shows bias.
Characteristics:
a. Based on emotions
b. Open to interpretation
c. Cannot be confirmed
d. Inherently biased
Correspondence Theory of Truth
➤ A statement is true if it matches reality or facts.
Coherence Theory of Truth
➤ A statement is true if it fits within a consistent system of beliefs or ideas.
Pragmatist Theory of Truth
➤ A statement is true if it is useful or works effectively in real-world practice.
1. Phenomenology – Focus: Consciousness
Founded by Edmund Husserl
From Greek phainomenon = "appearance"
Studies experiences and appearances through careful observation
2. Existentialism – Focus: Freedom
Emphasizes personal choice and individual freedom
Belief: A person creates their essence through life decisions
"Existence precedes essence"
3. Postmodernism – Focus: Culture
Questions all absolute truths (skepticism & relativism)
Belief: Truths vary per person and culture
No universal truth, only multiple cultural truths
4. Analytic Tradition – Focus: Language and Logic
Founded by Gottlob Frege in the 19th century
Also called linguistic philosophy
Focuses on meanings of words, concepts, and logical analysis
5. Logic and Critical Thinking – Focus: Reasoning
Logic = the science and art of correct reasoning
Critical thinking = distinguishing facts from opinions
Tools for analyzing arguments and forming valid conclusions
Two basic types of reasoning:
Inductive:
Based on observations to make generalizations
Moves from specific to general
Deductive:
Draws conclusions from a broad or general definition
Moves from general to specific
6. Fallacies – Focus: Common reasoning errors
Fallacies are errors in reasoning that lead to false conclusions
Appeal to Pity (argumentum ad misericordiam):
Uses emotion/sympathy to persuade
Appeal to Ignorance (argumentum ad gnorantiam):
Assumes something is true just because it hasn’t been proven false
Equivocation:
Uses a word with different meanings in the same argument
Composition:
Assumes what’s true of the part is true for the whole
Division:
Assumes what’s true of the whole is true for its parts
Against the Person (argumentum ad hominem):
Attacks the person rather than the argument
Appeal to Force (Ad Baculum):
Uses threats or force to justify a conclusion
Appeal to the People (Ad Populum):
Appeals to popularity or emotions
False Cause (Post Hoc):
Mistakes correlation for causation
Hasty Generalization:
Makes a broad claim with little evidence
Begging the Question (Petition Principii):
Assumes what it should be proving
Phenomenology – Based on consciousness and personal experience
Existentialism – Based on freedom and exercising personal choice
Postmodernism – Truth is relative, not absolute
Analytic Tradition – Based on meanings of words and logical structure
Logic and Critical Thinking – Based on reasoning and logical analysis
Fallacies – Based on identifying mistakes in reasoning